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This chapter attempts to integrate population growth, environment, and development, taking as its starting point that fact that the water-cycle may be seen as the central clockwork of the biosphere. After discussing how the water cycle can be seen as the propagator of various disturbances, the chapter focuses on causes of water scarcity. Genuine water scarcity is hydro-climatically defined, whereas ‘man-induced’ scarcity is a manifestation of scarcity the causes of which can be traced back to human actions. The main argument of this chapter is that water scarcity is essentially a problem of population growth. The tremendous threat induced by uncontrolled population growth is that increased population will produce more waste, but the per capita amount of water in which this waste may be diluted decreases. Therefore, population growth must be minimized. The avoidable part of that growth should be mitigated by child-spacing methods, and the unavoidable part of that growth should be met by decisive preparations for food and water security and improved waste handling in industry.

This chapter examines the importance of water for human survival and economic development and the role of water scarcity as a source of crises or humanitarian emergencies. It mentions studies about water scarcity or water barrier which reveal that it is becoming a major problem in developing countries because of population growth and efforts towards rapid industrialization. The findings also suggests that the increasing number of water conflicts have a strong potential for violent escalation and water projects causing massive population displacement which increases the possibility of death and suffering for large numbers of the population, which in turn can lead to complex humanitarian emergencies.

This chapter traces the interplay of water scarcity and water abundance in the development of bottled water markets in Chennai, India. This is a city without secure public water supply and with very compromised groundwater and yet it is also the epicentre of India’s booming bottled water industry, with high rates of bottled water consumption across the whole socio-economic spectrum. The chapter follows bottled water in Chennai through its multiple lives as both a scourge and a source of available drinking water, enacting diverse water realities in the process. Bottled water markets are shown to be deeply implicated in the growth of water scarcity in Chennai and also, paradoxically, the apparent solution to this serious situation.

This concluding chapter looks at the future of water. There are two possible paths for managing water. First, if the world continues with inadequate governance and institutions, incorrect market signals, and insufficient innovations to improve efficiency and manage competing demands, most chronic water and scarcity problems will continue to worsen. The world will see a future of declining water security, freshwater ecosystem degradation, and increasing disputes and conflicts over remaining water resources. The alternative path to managing water is the one offered by this book. If, in anticipation of the coming decades of increasing water scarcity, humankind is able to develop appropriate governance and institutions for water management, instigate market and policy reforms, and address global management issues, then improved innovation and investments in new water technologies and better protection of freshwater ecosystems should secure sufficient beneficial water use for a growing world population.

In recent years we can see a growing pressure on land and water resources, increasing water scarcity, and intensifying competition between sectors, water uses, and water users. Processes of socio-economic transformation in developing countries like India and Nepal often entail interventions in irrigated agriculture to increase efficiency, sustainability, or equity. These processes also generate societal debate about the advantages and disadvantages of modern engineering technology and ‘traditional’ or ‘farmer-managed’ irrigation systems. Dealing effectively with these issues and problems, it first requires an understanding of the complex interrelationships between the various dimensions of water control involved. The Introduction provides a critical perspective on the role of technology and institutions in and around irrigation in a context of rapid societal changes. It also introduces the case studies and the technologies, institutions, and socio-technical interactions they present.

This chapter explores the social and economic implications of rising global water use and scarcity. In the near future, many countries, regions, and populations may face rising costs of exploiting additional water resources that could constrain growth as well as make it increasingly difficult to meet the needs of those poor populations and countries that face chronic water insecurity. If unchecked, water scarcity could increase the likelihood of civil unrest and conflicts. There is also a risk of disputes over the management of transboundary water sources and “water grabbing” acquisitions. Yet this crisis could be avoided. Inadequate policies, governance, and institutions, coupled with incorrect market signals and insufficient innovations to improve efficiency, underlie most chronic water problems.

This chapter addresses the challenge of the chronic underpricing of water resources. In a world of rising water scarcity, the underpricing of water is anathema to good water management. There is growing recognition that this needs to change. Nearly all countries are embarking on pricing reforms and encouraging water markets to emerge. However, most of these efforts are still not confronting the main management paradigm of the modern era's “hydraulic mission,” which is that lack of water can always be met by new sources of supply. As long as this view persists, water pricing and markets will remain peripheral and will have little impact on reducing water scarcity. In short, the lack of appropriate water markets, pricing, and policies is a key symptom of the global crisis in water management.

Chapter 7 explores the implications of continued population growth for water availability, particularly under the new stresses of climate change. Per capita water consumption mirrored population growth until 1945, and then increased sharply due to increased irrigation, urbanization, and expanding middle classes across the developed world. Since the 1980s, total demand has soared while per capita usage has declined, as behavioural change and government regulation have mitigated water stress in developed economies. In developing countries, meanwhile, the challenge continues to become more intense as income and population growth place growing stress on global water supplies and ecological balance. Climate change is predicted to make water scarcity ‘hotspots’ more widespread and more acute. The chapter concludes, however, that there is still hope: the virtual water trade; efficiency gains and water reuse; and a renewed drive for desalination powered by green energy, could ensure that there is adequate global water supply for generations to come, even if the planet is home to many more people.

This chapter highlights several important empirical conclusions that emerge from the chapters of the book. First, the statistical analysis investigating the linkages among water availability (measured as water quantity per capita) and variability of water supply and treaty-cooperation as well as the analysis investigating the type of institutions that contribute to treaty effectiveness in basins facing increased scarcity and variability support an inverted U-shape cooperation-scarcity/variability relationship. The chapter also discusses the role of several control variables that allow us to add nuance to the results and overall lessons for cooperation. Several conclusions emerge: we find little support for the claim that power asymmetry facilitates international cooperation. On the contrary, power asymmetry does not have a positive impact on treaty cooperation. We also find that incentives (which have been incorporated into existing treaties) such as financial transfers (often at the disposal of richer states) provide a better means for fostering international environmental cooperation between asymmetric parties. Both the quantitative empirical analysis and case-study investigation provide sufficient evidence to suggest that existing and future levels of scarcity and variability can be accommodated not only by institutions in and of themselves but likewise the mechanisms negotiated as part of these institutions.

This chapter presents an estimate of water requirement in India from 1990 to 2025. The estimates are based on the premise that the water demand in some sectors would be driven by the long-term economic growth trends and demographic changes. The assessment of future water requirement involved estimation of domestic water requirements based on urban and rural population projections; agricultural water requirements based on projected demand for cereals and major agricultural produce; and industrial water demand based on projected industrial outputs in different sub-sectors of industrial economy for different time horizons.

This introductory chapter provides an overview of the water paradox. Water is essential to life and freshwater on this planet has always been limited. This would suggest that, if water is the most valuable commodity for humans and it is growing scarcer because of its increasing use, then humans ought to be taking care of its main source—freshwater ecosystems. Instead, for thousands and thousands of years, humankind's approach to managing water supplies has been just the opposite. Unfortunately, the consequence of humankind's action and neglect is that the principal source of water—freshwater ecosystems—is under increased pressure and even destruction from both human impacts and environmental change. Indeed, according to the World Economic Forum's annual report Global Risk 2016, over the next decade the biggest threat to the planet will be a global water crisis. A global water crisis will have a number of economic and social implications.

This chapter discusses the idea of water as an economic good. In the past several decades, there has been greater recognition that how humans manage water scarcity and its competing uses must change. This new perspective is reflected in the International Conference on Water and the Environment's (ICWE) 1992 Dublin Statement on Water and Sustainable Development, which declared as one of its core principles: “Water has an economic value in all its competing uses and should be recognized as an economic good.” If water is an “economic good,” then the institutions for managing water should ensure that scarce water is allocated to its most valuable competing use. Rising freshwater scarcity would mean that all users of water would pay higher costs. Any increasing scarcity would be temporary and the resulting higher costs would be “an important way of achieving efficient and equitable use, and of encouraging conservation and protection of water resources.”

This chapter sums up the key findings of this study on water management problems in India. The findings reveal that very little is known about the nature and magnitude of water scarcity, the causes for such scarcity situation, and the kind of interventions that would be needed to avert the crisis. This chapter highlights a new water management paradigm and suggests that the best approach to deal with India's water management problems starts with generating a realistic scenario of future water demands and supplies, and assessing the type, nature, and magnitude of scarcity.

This chapter studies the reform of water institutions and governance. Reforming governance and institutions to meet the challenge of growing water scarcity and competing demands is at the heart of the solution to the water paradox. Water governance consists of the processes and institutions by which decisions that affect water are made. Institutions are the informal and formal rules, arising from well-established social arrangements and structures, which provide incentives and determine outcomes in both individual and collective decisions related to water development, allocation, use, and management. Important influences on water governance include legal and social institutions that protect property rights, enforce contracts, and encourage collective action for the physical and organizational infrastructure needed to manage the resource. Thus, water institutions and governance are the bedrock upon which water management is built. If the foundation of governance and institutions is strong, then good water management ensues; if it is weak, then management will collapse.

Reliable access to water is a primary constraint for agricultural productivity and hence for food security. This is a significant issue in the tropics and sub-tropics, especially in regions with a high population density. Increasing climate variability and population will exacerbate the solution. However, improved water productivity through better irrigation, water storage, tillage, crop selection, and genetic improvement in drought and salinity tolerance could lead to more than adequate food to support the expected demands for the next 20-30 years, without using any more water than today. Improvements in water allocation and pricing, agricultural extension and supply chain management to implement existing technologies and practices that can help achieve this goal will be needed to make this a practical reality. Addressing water scarcity due to climate change and variability and to groundwater depletion through better operation of dams and trade (virtual water) is essential.

This chapter highlights three different actions that some governments and companies are taking in the face of water scarcity, deforestation, and other environmental challenges. The first is the Ayala Group, one of the Philippines’s largest conglomerates. Building on its success, Ayala’s Manila Water subsidiary is partnering with the Philippine government and the Asian Development Bank to design a broader water-management strategy that seeks to protect watersheds and clean up the Pasig River running through central Manila. The second one is Singapore, a nation whose very existence is at risk because of a lack of water, has now emerged as a global leader in water treatment technology. Today, about one third of its water comes from treated wastewater. The third is Hong Kong-based Esquel, one of the world’s largest shirt makers, which has included water conservation and treatment as part of a hard-headed business approach that has led to both increased innovation and cost savings.

This chapter considers water as a basic good that satisfies critical basic human needs for drinking, hygiene, and food preparation. It considers the widespread nature of water deprivation and the challenges of addressing this deprivation, including climate change, water shortages, and increased population growth. The chapter examines the subsistence right to water and the role of this right within the United Nations system of human rights. It also examines the relationship of water to food security and the industrial ecology of water. It takes up the issues of nanotechnology and desalination in helping to provide water as well as the critical issue of water storage. It concludes with a consideration of demand-side issues and water provisioning processes.

This chapter examines water as a means of sustenance and explores its potentials for sustainability. Although water is a renewable resource, it is also a scarce resource in some areas where population growth, growing industrialization, spreading urbanization, climate change, and increasing pollution have, between them, all contributed to mounting concerns for future water supplies. Water is the planet's most abundant resource, yet it is not everywhere plentiful, and one-fifth of Earth's population still lacks access to clean, cheap water. The chapter considers these paradoxes before transitioning the discussion into how and why water is used, how it is disposed of, and whether or not it can be recycled.