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This is the first of five chapters on the text of the Old Testament. It focuses on textual criticism of the ancient versions of the Old Testament, pointing out that no other ancient or modern text seems to be witnessed by so many diverse sources in a variety of languages, and has a transmission history so difficult to elucidate as the text of the Hebrew Bible. The essay offers a necessarily restricted survey of the early transmission history of the biblical text in manuscript form up to the crystallization of an incipient unified Hebrew text and the appearance of translations of the Hebrew original into other Semitic and non‐Semitic languages between c.200 bce and 300 ce; invariably, later secondary translations are not considered. Attention focuses on the early stages of the written transmission of the consonantal text with emphasis on a concise review of the information on its history, which can be obtained from two quite dissimilar groups of manuscript remains in respect to chronology and socio‐religious provenance: (a) the assemblage of biblical scrolls and scroll fragments (the Dead Sea Scrolls) brought to light since 1947 that the dissident ‘Community of the Renewed Covenant’ had deposited in caves near a site known by the modern Arabic name of Qumran; and (b) fragments found since the 1950s at other sites in the Judaean Desert—Masada, Wadi Murabba’at, Naḥal Ṣe‚elim (Wadi Seiyāl) , and Naḥal Ḥever, which represent the textual tradition of normative Judaism.

Here the problem of the archaeology and travel in desert environments as a background to the wilderness narratives is treated. Based on the reference to 600,000 (šeš me’ot‘elep) men departing from Egypt (Exodus 12:37), it has been traditionally thought that this means that there were several million Israelites involved in the exodus. How many Israelites were there? A careful study of the Hebrew word ‘elep (“thousand”) lays to rest the notion of hordes of Israelites in the wilderness. Based on the travel data gleaned in the previous chapter, a route from the Reed Sea to Mt. Sinai is proposed, and an attempt is made to locate key sites mentioned in the Torah’s itinerary such as Marah, Elim, Dophkah, and Rephidim. Connections between biblical sites and present-day areas are explored (e.g. ‘Ayun Musa, Wadi Humr, Serabit el-Khadim, Wadi Feiran).

This chapter presents a single case study of a Roman imperial mining operation (metalla) as an example of the potential environmental and human consequences of large-scale Roman metal production. As such, it stands for many instances of Rome's exploitation of the key natural resources of provincial territories. Tacitus, for instance, was explicit in describing the mineral resources of Britain as the “spoils of victory.” However, it is shown that the consequences of Rome's pursuit of economic gain carried a high human and environmental cost. It draws on the results of the Wadi Faynan landscape survey (1996–2000), an interdisciplinary and diachronic investigation of evidence of environmental and climatic change, settlement pattern, and human activity.

This chapter provides some illustrations of the potential disparity between plough-zone results and those in a variety of arid-zone projects, where surface preservation of physical features allows better site identification and crucially important additional information on site typologies and functions. The author here draws on his personal involvement in the Kasserine Survey (Tunisia), the UNESCO Libyan Valleys Survey and the Fazzan Project (both in Libya), and the Wadi Faynan Landscape Survey in Jordan.

This excursus offers a brief glimpse into annual celebrations (mawāsim) at the sacred site of al-Husayn's head by the ruins of Ascalon, 1875 - 1947. These began with a procession from the nearby town of Majdal, and included, besides a visit to the shrine (which was reconstructed in the late 19^th-century) also various festivities in the plain known by the Qurʾanic appellation Wadi al-Naml. The figure of Saladin was prominent in these events, bound with rising Palestinian nationalism.

This chapter examines some aspects of the sacred service of preparing the Holy Chrism Oil, as performed in the Monastery of St. Macarius in the Middle Ages; this study is based on his work on a unique manuscript, housed in the Patriarchal Library in Cairo. In particular, it focuses on the investigation of the Myron in Wadi al-Natrun to the ceremony which took place in 1374 AD in the monastery of Saint Macarius under Pope Gabriel IV. The importance of this manuscript is not only because of the rarity of the published manuscripts concerning the Myron but also it reflects some local tradition from Upper-Egypt which is emphasized in this chapter. Next, the chapter addresses the significance of this manuscript for the study of the development of the Coptic liturgy. The three examples presented highlight the importance of the study of the manuscript of the Concoction of the Myron 106 Lit. The manuscript is also important for the study of the development of monasticism in Wadi n'Natrun by the end of the fourteenth century.

This chapter introduces the people of the wadi and the concept and reality of the Wadi Allaqi Biosphere Reserve. Wadi Allaqi is the largest wadi of the southern part of the Eastern Desert of Egypt, originating in the Red Sea Hills some 200 kilometers to the southeast of where it meets the Nile valley. Before the Aswan High Dam was built, Wadi Allaqi was a dry wadi for all its length. The impoundment of water behind the High Dam led to the creation of an arm of Lake Nasser extending southeastwards some 80–100 kilometers into the lower part of Wadi Allaqi. This essentially created a major new resource opportunity—water—for the Bedouin of the area. Wadi Allaqi has a range of potential resources that has attracted a number of outsiders including major quarrying and agricultural interests and fishermen. These factors add up to significant pressures on the ecology of Wadi Allaqi. As a consequence, the area was formally designated as a Biosphere Reserve in 1993 within the UNESCO Man and Biosphere Program.

The Arab Revolt of 1916–18 played a significant part in the military collapse of the Ottoman Empire at the end of the First World War. This chapter argues that archaeological evidence indicates that the revolt's importance was probably substantially greater than has sometimes been acknowledged. The evidence demonstrates the need for a critical re-evaluation of the issue in southern Jordan. The archaeological investigation of sites associated with the Arab Revolt in southern Jordan offers dramatic insights into the material consequences for the Ottoman army of combating the guerrilla tactics of British-backed Arab guerrillas. The aim of the discussion is twofold: to give more precision to the military assessment of the Arab Revolt in the area between Ma'an and Wadi Rutm, and to demonstrate the potential of the new and multidisciplinary sub-discipline of twentieth-century ‘conflict archaeology’.

This chapter deals with the role that monasticism and Wadi al-Natrun have played in Coptology. In particular, it presents the history of Coptological studies and the definition of Coptology. It starts in the nineteenth century, when the first professorship for Coptic language and literature was appointed at a German university. For the beginning of Coptological studies, it points to the article “Coptological Studies” in the Coptic Encyclopedia. It is seen here that Coptology is not a small, but a very large discipline and needs many scholars for research. The Wadi al Natrun enriches nearly all fields of Coptology and it also covers a very long period from the fourth century of the Christian era up to the present day and also for the coming centuries. In general, all lectures are part of Coptological studies and show the importance of Wadi al-Natrun for the many fields of Coptology from the beginning of monasticism in the fourth century to the present time and—with God's help—the coming centuries.

This chapter examines in particular the inhabitants of Wadi al-Natrun, who came from several ethnic groups other than native Egyptians or Copts. The history of the Wadi al-Natrun can be traced back to earlier pharaonic times when the trade route ran from Buhaira and Farāfrah. The multiethnic character of the Wadi al-Natrun is reflected in the names of two monasteries which are still active today: Dayr as-Surian, the Syrian Monastery, and Dayr al-Baramus, the Monastery of the Romans. The ethnic problems in the Scetis are presented. It also explains the foundation of the al-Baramus Monastery and the early historical developments in the Wadi al-Natrun. The new, cenobitic form of monastic life fostered the establishment of other religious communities in the Scetis.

This chapter deals with the mention of the area in The History of the Patriarchs of Alexandria, also recounting interesting historical events that were witnessed there by the authors of this important historical work. It specifically sheds some light on the monasteries and monks of the Wādī al-Naṭrūn as they are mentioned and described in the History of the Patriarchs of Alexandria. It then concentrates on the period of the Fatimids (969–1171 A.D.), which is generally considered one of the periods in which the Coptic community flourished. Next, it presents a number of remarks on the patriarchs Christodoulos and Cyril II, and on what their biographer, Mawhūb, has to say about them and about the monks and the monasteries of the Wādī al-Naṭrūn in their days. It also considers Saint Bishoi, Dayr al-Suryān, Saint John the Little, Saint Macarius, Baramūs, and Saint John Kamā. It is shown that Mawhūb was very much at home in several of its monasteries.

This chapter reports the literary works found in the ancient libraries of Wadi al-Natrun, as well as the scholarly works and studies being done on them. In particular, it provides a brief overview of Coptic literature and the current status of research in this field of study. It also mentions that the connection between literature and monasticism goes back to the very beginning of the Coptic period. It specifically gives an overview of the history and importance of Wadi al-Natrun. It then offers a summary of interesting points and presents examples for the several problems that Coptology is dealing with. In general, it is hoped that this chapter shows that the old manuscripts of the Wadi al-Natrun, which transmit a history of nearly 1,000 years, hand over to the readers the responsibility for large parts of the heritage of Coptic literature.

This chapter looks at the geological environment of Wadi Natrun that made it possible to establish and sustain such a vibrant community in that part of the Western Desert of Egypt. The geological history of Wadi Natrun is written in its rocks. It can be read by examining these rocks, putting them in chronological order and attempting to decipher the environment in which they were formed. The survey of the geological history of Wadi Natrun shows that the wadi lies at the confluence of two great groundwater reservoirs: the older Moghra reservoir of non-renewable fossil water and the more recent present-day Nile reservoir of renewable source of water. A table of the major events is presented, which led to the evolution of the present-day Wadi Natrun. The years are marked in the millions.

This chapter explores the role that Macarius the Great, Isaiah of Scetis, and Daniel of Scetis played in laying the foundation of this great center of monastic life, as observed in their writings. In particular, it concentrates on three representatives of early desert monasticism in Scetis from the fourth through to the sixth century, one from each century: Macarius the Great (4th c.), Isaiah of Scetis (5th c.), and Daniel of Scetis (6th c.). It is hoped that these three figures can give a clearer picture of the intricate and beautiful carpet of early monasticism and can help us better to understand why the early monks were out here and what they were hoping to accomplish.

This chapter reports the types of liturgical services that have been found in the area and their eventual influence on the liturgical tradition of the Coptic Church, as observed in the contents of the Library of the Monastery of St. Macarius. It is well known that the monasteries of Wadi al-Natrun played an important role in unifying the Coptic liturgy and endowing it with the ritual which is in use today. In particular, the chapter presents evidence drawn from monastic manuscripts, the ordinary services and the witnesses to non-extant services. The works which the author referred results in the borderline between liturgy and literature. Some literary works, in fact, whether found amongst the manuscripts of Wadi al-Natrun or not, can shed some light on the way the liturgy was celebrated. Finally, the influence of the monasteries is shown.

This chapter describes the impact of Wadi al-Natrun and its monks as found in the recently restored icons of the Monastery of St. Antony at the Red Sea. In particular, it explains the rationale for the existence of the nave paintings. Mimesis, martyrdom, and monasticism are connected in this program genealogically. The genealogy in question is a spiritual one, and establishes ties between Scetis and the Red Sea coast. It then proposes an interpretation of the rationale for the juxtaposition of martyrs and monks in the nave program. Moreover, it provides a very brief mention of the role of the Virgin Mary in the painted program, and in the network of mimesis, martyrs, and monks.

This chapter provides an overall survey of the architectural features found in the excavations of the monastic settlements in Wādī al-Naṭrūn, including the recent excavations at the Monastery of St. John the Little. Some geographical facts of the Wādī al-Naṭrūn are made clear, and then it enters into the descriptions of other monk cells. The first monastic settlement in the region was founded in the area now occupied by the Monastery of Baramūs or “Monastery of the Romans” (nrwmeoc), as it appears in Coptic sources. There are also some remarkable facts in Wādī al-Naṭrūn related to the churches. It appears that the introduction of the khūrus into Egyptian church architecture is directly connected with the personality of the Patriarch Benjamin.

This chapter introduces the author's systematic work in the cataloging of the motifs and ornaments found in the wall paintings of the region. The intention of the remarks made is to concentrate on the question about the necessary methodical bases for a collection, documentation, and analysis of the ornamental repertoire in Coptic art. When the author received the invitation to deliver a paper in Wadi al-Natrun symposium, it was a welcome occasion to look beyond the purple textiles and to turn to a genre whose knowledge and whose stock in the churches of the monasteries of Wadi al-Natrun is continually growing, thanks to the scientific research of the past thirty years until today. The substantial problems that occur relating to the aim to register the stock of ornamental motifs of a genre can be summarized in three points: the choice of a nomenclature for the ornamental motifs; the choice of a written catalogue system for the ornamental motifs; and the choice of an illustrated catalogue system for the visualization of the results concerning the ornamental repertoire. These three points are significantly discussed in detail.

This chapter provides a general introduction to the author's work on the art in the Church of St. Macarius. In particular, it considers the wallpainting in the south haykal of the principal church of St. Macarius at Dayr Abu Makar. It proposes to redress the balance by considering the paintings, uncovered a quarter of a century ago, in the light of the historical, archaeological, and art historical evidence. During the process, it raises questions for further architectural and archaeological study. A brief survey of the early building history of the Church of Saint Macarius at Dayr Abu Makar is shown. In addition, the layers of wallpainting along the north wall of the sanctuary are described with reference to the plan, from the lowest layer upwards. The painting on the north wall seemingly predates that of the steps in the south chapel. Study of the early wallpaintings draws attention to a vital and virtually ignored aspect of the church's decoration, also of interest in themselves as reflecting Egypt's monastic tradition through the prism of secular art.