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This chapter surveys the history of vaccine research and development in China's wartime hinterlands during the early years of the Second Sino-Japanese War, considering first a major project launched by the League of Nations Health Organization (LNHO) and then, in turn, the major cities of Chongqing, Guiyang, and Lanzhou. Although urban areas were not the only places where medical researchers, students, and administrators worked, they were significant hubs for coordination and exchange. The development of vaccine production in cities coincided with the deployment of new and coercive strategies for immunization, reflecting the ongoing militarization of Chinese society. Yet many urban dwellers welcomed vaccination as a means of defending themselves against disease at a time when the Japanese offensive threatened to cause epidemic catastrophe both directly, through biological warfare, and indirectly, by causing large-scale migrations of refugees and soldiers across the country. Attempts to establish a certification system that connected immunization status to free passage on ships and roads suggested the increasing importance of biology to individual rights and freedoms in wartime China.

Ethical concerns have been a prominent feature of the debate about the HIV pandemic. Most ethical issues had already been analyzed by 1996, when HAART became available, but few of those issues have been re-analyzed since then. Also, few of the newer issues raised by HAART itself have been analyzed exhaustively. These issues include concerns about the generation and communication of personal information, rights to, care of people infected with HIV, as well as rights in relation to prevention and vaccine research. The capacity of HAART to prevent infection following a variety of HIV exposures raises concerns about HIV testing and disclosure of personal information. Some issues arise from availability of HAART, whereas others arise from its lack of availability, especially in developing countries. This chapter briefly examines the principle ethical issues that HAART highlights as a basis for encouraging future investigations and discussion.

This chapter discusses the start of the anthrax outbreak from the viewpoint of a military officer, first studying the huge reformations of the Yeltsin era and the equally large turnover in military personnel. From here the discussion turns to the meeting with General Yevstigneyev, where he related what he knew about the anthrax outbreak and suggested alternate scenarios for the outbreak. It considers the erosion of the military's science and technology and the vaccine research or production conducted in Compound 19 in 1979. The chapter also discusses the aerosol challenges, identifies the strain being used in Compound 19 at the time of the outbreak, and reviews the communications that led to the presidential decree for pensions to the victims' families.