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This chapter describes the 21 human trophy heads recovered from Conchopata, examining how they more fully explicate the role of militarism and violence in the Wari Empire, and comparing strontium isotope ratios from the heads to those from the Conchopata burials to determine whether they derive from local or non-local individuals. The strontium isotope data show that a vast majority of the trophy heads are non-local, suggesting that they represent enemy communities from distant lands. The author describes Wari iconography that depicts Wari warriors carrying trophy heads and prisoners. Based on the morphological, isotopic, and iconographic evidence, she argues that Wari military agents traveled to non-local regions to obtain prisoners for sacrifice and transformation into trophy heads. These practices were likely part of the Wari strategy for expansion and control, and also provided men with a means to gain social power while also creating a particular kind of masculine identity. Trophy heads from Beringa and La Real are also described.

This chapter focuses on the origins of culturally modified human crania, or “trophy heads,” from the Early Nasca phases (ad 1–450) of the Nasca culture (ad 1–750) of the South Coast of Peru, where they are ubiquitously represented and displayed and their meaning is still debated. The two most prevalent explanations for trophy heads focus on ancestor worship and warfare during a time of emerging social, political, and religious complexity. The same questions are asked for the Neolithic Near East, Iron Age Eurasia, and ethnographic Oceania—who is represented by these heads? Are they ancestors of those who curated and interred them? Are they enemies from a separate ethnic group or population? This study is the first to explore the genetic relationships among individuals and groups from the Nazca and surrounding valleys and indicates that Early Nasca trophy heads derive from the Nazca Valley population, in other words, from “insiders.” This chapter demonstrates the utility of ancient DNA analysis in addressing the universal question of who is represented by heads that have been deformed, disembodied, decorated, or otherwise modified from diverse regions of the world. Furthermore, as this example shows, unexpected results may force us to modify our reconstructions of ancient social structures.

Previous studies of iconographic and skeletal evidence suggest that a Wari (AD 600-1000) military class in the Peruvian Andes engaged in the capture of prisoners from both local and foreign locales. Captives include men and children, suggesting that battlefields alone were not the source of captives, for children are rarely encountered in warfare battles. Rather, village raids were the likely context in which all age groups would have been encountered. Women also may have been taken in these raids and transported back to the Wari heartland site of Conchopata. While osteological data indicate that male and child captives were transformed into trophy heads and deposited in ritual structures, it remains unclear what happened to women. Tiffiny A. Tung explores the frequency and patterning of violence-related trauma among the Conchopata population, and how it differed by gender and locals versus foreigners.

The Nasca culture of the Early Intermediate Period was the first large, complex, regional integrated society centered in the region. This chapter explores the nature of complexity during the Nasca culture and presents new data from La Tiza that challenges previous interpretations. Issues of subsistence practices, irrigation, trade, economic organization, and craft production are covered along with an in-depth discussion of religion and the practices surrounding the geoglyphs and trophy head taking. The data from La Tiza are presented and, based on this evidence, it is argued that population was larger, settlements were more varied, and the civilization was more hierarchical and politically integrated than some scholars have suggested. Religion and ritual practices played a key role in the formation and expansion of this culture, with ceremonial centers and religious leaders at the center of the power structure for much of the period.