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This chapter describes developmental methods for studying social learning. Developmental approaches can be broadly divided into two types. The first type includes approaches that involve collecting observational data on the development of a trait and the opportunities that arise for social learning, as well as attempting to infer the role of social learning. The second consists of developmental methods that involve experimental manipulations. The chapter begins by discussing some of the methods that have been applied to observational data on the development of traits in order to elucidate the social influences on development. In particular, it considers approaches for describing the developmental process, modeling the probability of acquisition and time of acquisition, modeling the proficiency of trait performance, and modeling option choice. The chapter also evaluates the limitations of observational data and concludes with an overview of experimental manipulation methods, including diffusion experiments, manipulation of social experience, and translocation experiments.

Cytogenetics has played a fundamental role in advancing our understanding of human genetic variation. Advances in this field are set in a historical context, describing the microscopically visible variation involving gain or loss of whole chromosomes and major chromosomal rearrangements. The molecular basis and features of Down syndrome, Klinefelter syndrome, and Turner syndrome are reviewed. Chromosomal rearrangements between and within chromosomes are reviewed including reciprocal and Robertsonian translocations, deletions, duplications, and inversions. The important class of genomic disorders involving gain or loss of dosage sensitive genes is introduced. Other structural variation including marker chromosomes and isochromosomes are also discussed.

The phenomenon of so‐called ‘order—disorder’ in crystals has few examples in the world of biological macromolecules. Thus, the crystal repetition may only approximately be covered by the unit cell. Commensurate multiples of the unit cell repeat produce sublattices of diffraction spots; a doubling of one unit cell producing a halving of the diffraction spot lattice. The case of incommensurate, i.e. noninteger multiples of a basic unit cell produce diffraction spots at some noninteger fraction between diffraction spots. We present case studies in this chapter. Technical challenges of resolving the sublattice reflections of up to 5 times the unit cell repeat, using synchrotron radiation, illustrate how to measure these diffraction data.

Ion channel trafficking, like that of other heteromeric membrane proteins, proceeds in a number of stages, and in the case of voltage-dependent calcium channels (VDCCs) very little is known about any of these processes. Starting from the initial translation of subunit mRNA into protein, a number of distinct but interdependent processes must occur, including the translocation of transmembrane subunits into the membrane of the endoplasmic reticulum, post-translational modification and the folding of individual subunits, oligomerization and association with auxiliary subunits, and trafficking through the endoplasmic reticulum and trans-Golgi network. All these are likely to occur on overlapping timescales, and are not expected to be independent processes.

This chapter provides an overview of beaver dispersal. There are a number of reasons why beavers have to disperse from their native family. As a relatively long-lived species, beavers produce 3–4 newborns every year. If the young stay with their parents and siblings, the colony would grow huge in a few years and soon outstrip its food resources. More importantly, grown-up offpring must find mates to start reproducing themselves. Mating with close relatives would often result in disastrous genetic defects, a phenomenon called inbreeding depression. This chapter discusses the risks that come with dispersal and explains how natural dispersal differs from translocation and homing. It also considers the age at which beavers usually leave their family, along with the timing, direction, distance, and duration of dispersal.

In recent years in North America and in other locales, there has been a surge of interest in the status and conservation of amphibian populations. Concern centers on the disappearance or decline of individual populations, species, and even geographic assemblages of amphibians, particularly anurans. Although there is likely no one cause for population declines in many scattered regions or for the deformities reported in midwestern North America, researchers are now feverishly developing monitoring and research programs that can only aid in our understanding of amphibian population dynamics and the importance of amphibians to ecosystem function. Head-starting, relocation, repatriation, and translocation (HS/RRT), often in conjunction with captive breeding, have frequently been suggested as viable options in the conservation of amphibians. This chapter reviews recent projects employing HS/RRT solutions to problems facing imperiled amphibians.

This chapter discusses the ecological and biogeographic characteristics of West Indian iguanas that favor translocation efforts. It focuses on three taxa of West Indian iguanas: the Jamaican iguana (Cyclura collei), the Anegada iguana (Cyclura pinguis), and the Grand Cayman iguana (Cyclura nubila lewisi). It begins by evaluating past translocation programs and then examines the factors affecting translocation success. It also presents recommendations for future iguana translocation programs.

This chapter discusses the modeling of a genome with several chromosomes by a set of paths and cycles. The model captures all the information about the order of the genes and their partition into chromosomes. The discussion covers genomes; breakpoints; intervals; translocation distance; double cut-and-joins (2-break rearrangement); k-break rearrangement; fusions, fissions, translocations, and reversals; and rearrangements with partially ordered chromosomes.

Worldwide, prehistoric hunter-gatherers and horticulturalists translocated a variety of animals and plants to islands. Translocations enhanced island ecosystems, introducing animals and plants used for food or raw materials. We review recent zooarchaeology, genetics, and stable isotope data to evaluate the evidence for ancient translocations to the islands of Baja and Alta California. Native peoples likely translocated foxes, mice, ground squirrels, domesticated dogs, iguanids, and possibly skunks to some California Islands. Although some animal translocations were for subsistence or broader environmental enhancement, others were either unintentional (mice) or more closely associated with ritual and other cultural practices. The dearth of translocations tied directly to subsistence suggests that marginal island food sources were not a primary factor driving translocation.

After 600 years of persecution, during which dramatic population fluctuations occurred, common buzzards are increasing in abundance and recolonizing most of lowland UK. But recovery is bringing them to the heart of a controversy. Once again, game-managers and poultry farmers blame buzzards for killing stock and thus harming livelihoods. To better understand buzzard biology and assess their impact on wildlife and domestic stock, field data and well-established and innovative modelling techniques were used. It was noted that phylopatry resulted in a naturally slow rate of buzzard population expansion, while habitat availability now limits population abundance. The impact of buzzard predations on released pheasants was found be variable but typically small, and it was also found that high predation can be reduced with simple pen management measures. Licensed translocation of ‘problem’ buzzards may also be an option, but only if accompanied by improvements in management to avert re-colonizing buzzards from also developing a livelihood-harming diet. The worry is, however, that concern about translocation of raptors risks diverting public opinion from the more serious issues of poor land use and climate change.

When the decision is made to augment gene flow into an isolated population, managers must decide how to augment gene flow, when to start, from where to take the individuals or gametes to be added, how many, which individuals, how often and when to cease. Even without detailed genetic data, sound genetic management strategies for augmenting gene flow can be instituted by considering population genetics theory, and/or computer simulations. When detailed data are lacking, moving (translocating) some individuals into isolated inbred population fragments is better than moving none, as long as the risk of outbreeding depression is low.

Adverse genetic impacts on fragmented populations are expected to accelerate under global climate change. Many populations and species may not be able to adapt in situ, or move unassisted to suitable habitat. Management may reduce these threats by augmenting genetic diversity to improve the ability to adapt evolutionarily, by translocation, including that outside the species’ historical range (assisted colonization) and by ameliorating non-genetic threats. Global climate change amplifies the need for genetic management of fragmented populations.

Even without detailed genetic data, sound genetic management strategies for augmenting gene flow can be instituted by considering population genetics theory, and/or computer simulations. When detailed data are lacking, moving (translocating) some individuals into isolated inbred population fragments is better than moving none, as long as the risk of outbreeding depression is low. With more detailed genetic information, more precise genetic management of fragmented populations can be achieved. Using mean kinship within and between populations (estimated from modeling, pedigrees, genetic markers or genomes), and moving individuals among fragments with the lowest between fragment mean kinships provides the best approach to gene flow management. Populations should then be monitored to confirm that movement of individuals has resulted in the desired levels of gene flow, genetic diversity has been enhanced, and that the status of the population is improving.

Adverse genetic impacts on fragmented populations are expected to worsen under global climate change. Many populations and species may not be able to adapt in situ, or to move unassisted to suitable habitat. Management may reduce these threats by augmenting genetic diversity to improve the ability to adapt evolutionarily, by translocation, including that outside the species’ historical range, and by ameliorating non-genetic threats. Global climate change amplifies the need for genetic management of fragmented populations.

Captive breeding represents the last chance of survival for many species faced with imminent extinction in the wild. Captive breeding should be used sparingly because it is sometimes ineffective, and it can harm wild populations both indirectly and directly if not done correctly. There are a variety of crucial genetic issues to be considered in the founding of captive populations: How many individuals? Which source population(s)? A primary genetic goal of captive breeding programs is to minimize genetic change in captivity due to genetic drift and selection because genetic changes in captive populations can reduce the ability of captive individuals to reproduce and survive when returned to the wild. A variety of potentially valuable technologies (e.g., cloning, CRISPR-Cas (clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats-CRISPR-associated system), gene drives, etc.) are now available that have the potential to be valuable tools in conservation.

In this chapter, patterns of interactions are reviewed, from benign to mutually harmful, that characterize people–primate relationships, and the main social and ecological factors shaping people–primate coexistence are summarized. The reasons why certain primate species are better able to share landscapes with their human neighbours are examined, along with factors that influence people’s perceptions of, and attitudes, towards them. The chapter stresses how, at a local level, variations in socio-economic and cultural norms and values often underlie negative interactions between humans and primates. Lessons learned from studies to reduce negative interactions between people and primates are discussed, and broader scale landscape approaches that could facilitate effective primate conservation and human livelihood objectives examined. Finally, it is emphasized that understanding people–primate interactions requires a multifaceted approach, combining detailed understanding of the context, and needs of the different stakeholders, human and animal, and drivers of changing patterns of coexistence.

Humans have translocated thousands of nonhuman primates for conservation, welfare, economic, political, aesthetic, religious, and scientific reasons. Translocations that are intended to promote conservation should increase the probability of the establishment of a self-sustaining population of the species and/or restore critical ecological functions. Nine successful conservation-motivated nonhuman primate translocations, involving fewer than 800 individuals, are described. Translocation has not been used extensively as a conservation tool for nonhuman primates, although it may play a larger role in the future. Many primates have been translocated for welfare purposes: to avoid their certain death or to improve their wellbeing. Conservation-motivated translocations are also designed and conducted to maintain wellbeing, but there are inherent risks in moving nonhuman primates to new environments. Body size, niche breadth, and being born in captivity or in the wild are shown to have direct and indirect effects on the probability of success of nonhuman primate translocations.