Helmuth Spieler
- Published in print:
- 2005
- Published Online:
- September 2007
- ISBN:
- 9780198527848
- eISBN:
- 9780191713248
- Item type:
- book
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780198527848.001.0001
- Subject:
- Physics, Particle Physics / Astrophysics / Cosmology
Semiconductor sensors patterned at the micron scale combined with custom-designed integrated circuits have revolutionized semiconductor radiation detector systems. Designs covering many square meters ...
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Semiconductor sensors patterned at the micron scale combined with custom-designed integrated circuits have revolutionized semiconductor radiation detector systems. Designs covering many square meters with millions of signal channels are now commonplace in high-energy physics and the technology is finding its way into many other fields, ranging from astrophysics to experiments at synchrotron light sources and medical imaging. This book presents a discussion of the many facets of highly integrated semiconductor detector systems, covering sensors, signal processing, transistors, circuits, low-noise electronics, and radiation effects. To lay a basis for the more detailed discussions in the book and aid in understanding how these different elements combine to form functional detector systems, the text includes introductions to semiconductor physics, diodes, detectors, signal formation, transistors, amplifier circuits, electronic noise mechanisms, and signal processing. A chapter on digital electronics includes key elements of analog-to-digital converters and an introduction to digital signal processing. The physics of radiation damage in semiconductor devices is discussed and applied to detectors and electronics. The diversity of design approaches is illustrated in a chapter describing systems in high-energy physics, astronomy, and astrophysics. Finally, a chapter ‘Why things don't work’, discusses common pitfalls, covering interference mechanisms such as power supply noise, microphonics, and shared current paths (‘ground loops’), together with mitigation techniques for pickup noise reduction, both at the circuit and system level. Beginning at a basic level, the book provides a unique introduction to a key area of modern science.Less
Semiconductor sensors patterned at the micron scale combined with custom-designed integrated circuits have revolutionized semiconductor radiation detector systems. Designs covering many square meters with millions of signal channels are now commonplace in high-energy physics and the technology is finding its way into many other fields, ranging from astrophysics to experiments at synchrotron light sources and medical imaging. This book presents a discussion of the many facets of highly integrated semiconductor detector systems, covering sensors, signal processing, transistors, circuits, low-noise electronics, and radiation effects. To lay a basis for the more detailed discussions in the book and aid in understanding how these different elements combine to form functional detector systems, the text includes introductions to semiconductor physics, diodes, detectors, signal formation, transistors, amplifier circuits, electronic noise mechanisms, and signal processing. A chapter on digital electronics includes key elements of analog-to-digital converters and an introduction to digital signal processing. The physics of radiation damage in semiconductor devices is discussed and applied to detectors and electronics. The diversity of design approaches is illustrated in a chapter describing systems in high-energy physics, astronomy, and astrophysics. Finally, a chapter ‘Why things don't work’, discusses common pitfalls, covering interference mechanisms such as power supply noise, microphonics, and shared current paths (‘ground loops’), together with mitigation techniques for pickup noise reduction, both at the circuit and system level. Beginning at a basic level, the book provides a unique introduction to a key area of modern science.
Vaclav Smil
- Published in print:
- 2006
- Published Online:
- September 2006
- ISBN:
- 9780195168754
- eISBN:
- 9780199783601
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/0195168755.003.0005
- Subject:
- Economics and Finance, Economic History
Private transportation was transformed by mass ownership of automobiles while long-distance public transport benefited from new high-speed trains and from affordable flying. Freight transportation ...
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Private transportation was transformed by mass ownership of automobiles while long-distance public transport benefited from new high-speed trains and from affordable flying. Freight transportation was transformed by containers moved by ships, trains, and trucks. Communication and the processing and dissemination of information were revolutionized first by transistors, then by integrated circuits and microprocessors, the key components of mainframe and personal computers, televisions, and a multitude of electronic devices, many of them now taking advantage of the Internet.Less
Private transportation was transformed by mass ownership of automobiles while long-distance public transport benefited from new high-speed trains and from affordable flying. Freight transportation was transformed by containers moved by ships, trains, and trucks. Communication and the processing and dissemination of information were revolutionized first by transistors, then by integrated circuits and microprocessors, the key components of mainframe and personal computers, televisions, and a multitude of electronic devices, many of them now taking advantage of the Internet.
James W. Cortada
- Published in print:
- 2005
- Published Online:
- September 2007
- ISBN:
- 9780195165876
- eISBN:
- 9780199789689
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195165876.003.0010
- Subject:
- Business and Management, Business History
This chapter describes the role of information technology in two electronic media industries over time: radio and TV. It describes their applications in business practices, recording and transmission ...
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This chapter describes the role of information technology in two electronic media industries over time: radio and TV. It describes their applications in business practices, recording and transmission of programs, role over the Internet, and the effects on firms in these industries, beginning with transistor radios to the Internet.Less
This chapter describes the role of information technology in two electronic media industries over time: radio and TV. It describes their applications in business practices, recording and transmission of programs, role over the Internet, and the effects on firms in these industries, beginning with transistor radios to the Internet.
Helmuth Spieler
- Published in print:
- 2005
- Published Online:
- September 2007
- ISBN:
- 9780198527848
- eISBN:
- 9780191713248
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780198527848.003.0006
- Subject:
- Physics, Particle Physics / Astrophysics / Cosmology
This chapter treats transistors, their noise properties, and applications to basic circuits. First, the physics of bipolar transistors is discussed with an emphasis on device parameters important for ...
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This chapter treats transistors, their noise properties, and applications to basic circuits. First, the physics of bipolar transistors is discussed with an emphasis on device parameters important for circuit design. The properties of common emitter, common base, and common collector (emitter follower) circuits are discussed together with extensions to cascode and differential amplifiers. The analogous treatment is applied to junction field effect transistors (JFETs) and metal oxide semiconductor devices (MOSFETs). Noise properties of bipolar and field effect transistors are derived together with their dependence on device parameters and operating conditions. These results are then applied to the overall noise when used with a detector and pulse shaper. Low power operation is essential in large-scale strip and pixel detectors, so the closing sections discuss techniques to optimize the balance between noise, speed, and power.Less
This chapter treats transistors, their noise properties, and applications to basic circuits. First, the physics of bipolar transistors is discussed with an emphasis on device parameters important for circuit design. The properties of common emitter, common base, and common collector (emitter follower) circuits are discussed together with extensions to cascode and differential amplifiers. The analogous treatment is applied to junction field effect transistors (JFETs) and metal oxide semiconductor devices (MOSFETs). Noise properties of bipolar and field effect transistors are derived together with their dependence on device parameters and operating conditions. These results are then applied to the overall noise when used with a detector and pulse shaper. Low power operation is essential in large-scale strip and pixel detectors, so the closing sections discuss techniques to optimize the balance between noise, speed, and power.
Helmuth Spieler
- Published in print:
- 2005
- Published Online:
- September 2007
- ISBN:
- 9780198527848
- eISBN:
- 9780191713248
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780198527848.003.0007
- Subject:
- Physics, Particle Physics / Astrophysics / Cosmology
This chapter first explains basic radiation damage mechanisms (i.e., displacement and ionization damage), and then applies them to sensors and transistors. Radiation damage in detector diodes ...
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This chapter first explains basic radiation damage mechanisms (i.e., displacement and ionization damage), and then applies them to sensors and transistors. Radiation damage in detector diodes manifests itself as an increase in reverse bias current, changes in the required bias voltage, and carrier losses due to trapping. Space charge buildup due to displacement damage in depletion layers is described, which leads to a strong increase in the required bias voltage vs. temperature and time (anti-annealing). The effects of radiation damage on operating parameters and noise of field effect transistors (JFETs, MOSFETs) and bipolar transistors are discussed, together with annealing phenomena, e.g., low dose enhancement in bipolar transistors. The closing section discusses mitigation techniques, showing the interplay of system architecture, device parameters, and operating conditions.Less
This chapter first explains basic radiation damage mechanisms (i.e., displacement and ionization damage), and then applies them to sensors and transistors. Radiation damage in detector diodes manifests itself as an increase in reverse bias current, changes in the required bias voltage, and carrier losses due to trapping. Space charge buildup due to displacement damage in depletion layers is described, which leads to a strong increase in the required bias voltage vs. temperature and time (anti-annealing). The effects of radiation damage on operating parameters and noise of field effect transistors (JFETs, MOSFETs) and bipolar transistors are discussed, together with annealing phenomena, e.g., low dose enhancement in bipolar transistors. The closing section discusses mitigation techniques, showing the interplay of system architecture, device parameters, and operating conditions.
Leslie Berlin
- Published in print:
- 2005
- Published Online:
- September 2007
- ISBN:
- 9780195163438
- eISBN:
- 9780199788569
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195163438.003.0005
- Subject:
- History, History of Science, Technology, and Medicine
This chapter recounts the group of eight scientists' move from Shockley Semiconductor Labs to Fairchild Semiconductor Corporation, which was established under an agreement with Fairchild Camera and ...
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This chapter recounts the group of eight scientists' move from Shockley Semiconductor Labs to Fairchild Semiconductor Corporation, which was established under an agreement with Fairchild Camera and Instrument. A deal with IBM was key to the success of Fairchild Semiconductor. IBM wanted a transistor that could withstand high temperatures and that could switch quickly. By May 1958, the NPN transistor Moore's team had built for IBM was ready to move into production. By early summer, Fairchild Semiconductor had delivered its promised 100 devices to IBM.Less
This chapter recounts the group of eight scientists' move from Shockley Semiconductor Labs to Fairchild Semiconductor Corporation, which was established under an agreement with Fairchild Camera and Instrument. A deal with IBM was key to the success of Fairchild Semiconductor. IBM wanted a transistor that could withstand high temperatures and that could switch quickly. By May 1958, the NPN transistor Moore's team had built for IBM was ready to move into production. By early summer, Fairchild Semiconductor had delivered its promised 100 devices to IBM.
Leslie Berlin
- Published in print:
- 2005
- Published Online:
- September 2007
- ISBN:
- 9780195163438
- eISBN:
- 9780199788569
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195163438.003.0006
- Subject:
- History, History of Science, Technology, and Medicine
This chapter focuses on Noyce's capacity for innovation and his development of the integrated circuit. The early years of Fairchild Semiconductor were also a most intellectually fertile time for ...
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This chapter focuses on Noyce's capacity for innovation and his development of the integrated circuit. The early years of Fairchild Semiconductor were also a most intellectually fertile time for Noyce. Seven of his seventeen patents, including his most important for the integrated circuit, date from the eighteen months after the company was launched.Less
This chapter focuses on Noyce's capacity for innovation and his development of the integrated circuit. The early years of Fairchild Semiconductor were also a most intellectually fertile time for Noyce. Seven of his seventeen patents, including his most important for the integrated circuit, date from the eighteen months after the company was launched.
Vernon W. Ruttan
- Published in print:
- 2006
- Published Online:
- February 2006
- ISBN:
- 9780195188042
- eISBN:
- 9780199783410
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/0195188047.003.0005
- Subject:
- Economics and Finance, Development, Growth, and Environmental
The first all-purpose digital computer, completed in 1946, was developed by John W. Mauchly and J. Prosper Eckert, and associates at the University of Pennsylvania’s Moore School of Electrical ...
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The first all-purpose digital computer, completed in 1946, was developed by John W. Mauchly and J. Prosper Eckert, and associates at the University of Pennsylvania’s Moore School of Electrical Engineering, with funding from the U.S. Army Ballistic Research Laboratory. The first working transistor emerged from the solid state research program at Bell Laboratories led by William Schokley, John Bardeen, and Walter Brattain. The transition between initial development of the transistor and the subsequent development of military and commercial application in the 1950s were substantially funded by the Army Signal Corps. Intensification of the Cold War in the early 1950s provided the impetus for IBM to develop a fully transistorized computer for commercial use. Development of the integrated circuit at Texas Instruments in the late 1950s and of the microprocessor at Intel in the late 1960s set the stage for the development of both modern supercomputers and the personal computer.Less
The first all-purpose digital computer, completed in 1946, was developed by John W. Mauchly and J. Prosper Eckert, and associates at the University of Pennsylvania’s Moore School of Electrical Engineering, with funding from the U.S. Army Ballistic Research Laboratory. The first working transistor emerged from the solid state research program at Bell Laboratories led by William Schokley, John Bardeen, and Walter Brattain. The transition between initial development of the transistor and the subsequent development of military and commercial application in the 1950s were substantially funded by the Army Signal Corps. Intensification of the Cold War in the early 1950s provided the impetus for IBM to develop a fully transistorized computer for commercial use. Development of the integrated circuit at Texas Instruments in the late 1950s and of the microprocessor at Intel in the late 1960s set the stage for the development of both modern supercomputers and the personal computer.
John Orton
- Published in print:
- 2008
- Published Online:
- January 2010
- ISBN:
- 9780199559107
- eISBN:
- 9780191712975
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199559107.003.0003
- Subject:
- Physics, Crystallography: Physics
This chapter describes the work leading to the invention of the point-contact transistor at Bell Labs in 1947 by John Bardeen, Walter Brattain, and William Shockley, together with Shockley's later ...
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This chapter describes the work leading to the invention of the point-contact transistor at Bell Labs in 1947 by John Bardeen, Walter Brattain, and William Shockley, together with Shockley's later proposal for the junction transistor. It explains the context of the work, which can be described as ‘planned research’, involving teams of scientists with specific aims in view. The chapter also contains accounts of the physics and technology of silicon and germanium, describing zone-refining methods for purifying silicon or germanium boules and the Czochralski method for growing high quality single crystals from the melt. The band structure of these semiconductors is then described, introducing the concepts of their indirect band gaps, optical properties, effective masses, and free carrier mobilities. The importance of surface states in determining surface band-bending is emphasised. Minority carrier diffusion is discussed within the context of transistor action. The evolution of transistor technology is described.Less
This chapter describes the work leading to the invention of the point-contact transistor at Bell Labs in 1947 by John Bardeen, Walter Brattain, and William Shockley, together with Shockley's later proposal for the junction transistor. It explains the context of the work, which can be described as ‘planned research’, involving teams of scientists with specific aims in view. The chapter also contains accounts of the physics and technology of silicon and germanium, describing zone-refining methods for purifying silicon or germanium boules and the Czochralski method for growing high quality single crystals from the melt. The band structure of these semiconductors is then described, introducing the concepts of their indirect band gaps, optical properties, effective masses, and free carrier mobilities. The importance of surface states in determining surface band-bending is emphasised. Minority carrier diffusion is discussed within the context of transistor action. The evolution of transistor technology is described.
Igor Žutić and Jaroslav Fabian
- Published in print:
- 2006
- Published Online:
- September 2007
- ISBN:
- 9780198568216
- eISBN:
- 9780191718212
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780198568216.003.0002
- Subject:
- Physics, Condensed Matter Physics / Materials
By incorporating spin-dependent properties and magnetism in semiconductor structures, new applications can be considered which go beyond magnetoresistive effects based on metallic systems. ...
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By incorporating spin-dependent properties and magnetism in semiconductor structures, new applications can be considered which go beyond magnetoresistive effects based on metallic systems. Notwithstanding the prospects for spin/magnetism-enhanced logic in semiconductors, many important theoretical, experimental, and materials challenges remain. This chapter discusses the challenge for realizing a particular class of applications: the proposal here is for bipolar spintronic devices in which carriers of both polarities (electrons and holes) contribute to spin-charge coupling. Nonlinear current-voltage characteristics, large deviations from local charge neutrality, as well as inhomogeneous built-in and applied fields, all have important implications on the bipolar transport and potential spin-based logic applications. This chapter formulates the theoretical framework for bipolar spin-polarized transport, and describes the novel effects in two- and three-terminal structures which arise from the interplay between nonequilibrium spin and equilibrium magnetization.Less
By incorporating spin-dependent properties and magnetism in semiconductor structures, new applications can be considered which go beyond magnetoresistive effects based on metallic systems. Notwithstanding the prospects for spin/magnetism-enhanced logic in semiconductors, many important theoretical, experimental, and materials challenges remain. This chapter discusses the challenge for realizing a particular class of applications: the proposal here is for bipolar spintronic devices in which carriers of both polarities (electrons and holes) contribute to spin-charge coupling. Nonlinear current-voltage characteristics, large deviations from local charge neutrality, as well as inhomogeneous built-in and applied fields, all have important implications on the bipolar transport and potential spin-based logic applications. This chapter formulates the theoretical framework for bipolar spin-polarized transport, and describes the novel effects in two- and three-terminal structures which arise from the interplay between nonequilibrium spin and equilibrium magnetization.
Jan Martinek and Józef Barnaś
- Published in print:
- 2006
- Published Online:
- September 2007
- ISBN:
- 9780198568216
- eISBN:
- 9780191718212
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780198568216.003.0004
- Subject:
- Physics, Condensed Matter Physics / Materials
Ultrasmall systems called quantum dots (QDs) and single-electron transistors, where Coulomb interaction (Coulomb blockade) plays an important role, are very interesting and promising devices, which ...
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Ultrasmall systems called quantum dots (QDs) and single-electron transistors, where Coulomb interaction (Coulomb blockade) plays an important role, are very interesting and promising devices, which allow for control and manipulation of a single spin. With quantum dots, due to the control of a single electron charge, the possibility for manipulation of a single spin is opened up, which can be important for spintronics and quantum computing. On the level of a few spins, the new physics related to exchange interaction, spin blockade, Larmor precession, electron spin resonance (ESR), the Kondo effect, and hyperfine interactions with nuclear spins is raised. Also combining ferromagnetic materials with QDs opens up a new possibility of control and manipulation of a QD single spin by direct exchange interactions and construction of ferromagnetic single-electron transistors (F-SET).Less
Ultrasmall systems called quantum dots (QDs) and single-electron transistors, where Coulomb interaction (Coulomb blockade) plays an important role, are very interesting and promising devices, which allow for control and manipulation of a single spin. With quantum dots, due to the control of a single electron charge, the possibility for manipulation of a single spin is opened up, which can be important for spintronics and quantum computing. On the level of a few spins, the new physics related to exchange interaction, spin blockade, Larmor precession, electron spin resonance (ESR), the Kondo effect, and hyperfine interactions with nuclear spins is raised. Also combining ferromagnetic materials with QDs opens up a new possibility of control and manipulation of a QD single spin by direct exchange interactions and construction of ferromagnetic single-electron transistors (F-SET).
Daniel C. Ralph and Robert A. Buhrman
- Published in print:
- 2006
- Published Online:
- September 2007
- ISBN:
- 9780198568216
- eISBN:
- 9780191718212
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780198568216.003.0005
- Subject:
- Physics, Condensed Matter Physics / Materials
This chapter presents simple ideas for understanding how spin-polarized currents can be used to exert spin-transfer torques in magnetic devices. The chapter reviews recent progress for measuring the ...
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This chapter presents simple ideas for understanding how spin-polarized currents can be used to exert spin-transfer torques in magnetic devices. The chapter reviews recent progress for measuring the magnetic dynamics that result from spin-transfer torques in 100-nm-scale metallic spin valves and magnetic tunnel junctions. The chapter also discusses how the transport of spin and charge in magnetic devices changes when the structures are made even smaller, extending from magnetic particles a micron in diameter, to a few nanometers, and down to a single molecule. As the size of the magnet shrinks, effects such as Coulomb blockade and energy-level quantization can become dominant, and it becomes necessary to move beyond simple independent-electron models to consider the true correlated many-electron quantum states at the root of ferromagnetism.Less
This chapter presents simple ideas for understanding how spin-polarized currents can be used to exert spin-transfer torques in magnetic devices. The chapter reviews recent progress for measuring the magnetic dynamics that result from spin-transfer torques in 100-nm-scale metallic spin valves and magnetic tunnel junctions. The chapter also discusses how the transport of spin and charge in magnetic devices changes when the structures are made even smaller, extending from magnetic particles a micron in diameter, to a few nanometers, and down to a single molecule. As the size of the magnet shrinks, effects such as Coulomb blockade and energy-level quantization can become dominant, and it becomes necessary to move beyond simple independent-electron models to consider the true correlated many-electron quantum states at the root of ferromagnetism.
Xin Jiang and Stuart Parkin
- Published in print:
- 2006
- Published Online:
- September 2007
- ISBN:
- 9780198568216
- eISBN:
- 9780191718212
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780198568216.003.0006
- Subject:
- Physics, Condensed Matter Physics / Materials
Highly spin-polarized electron currents can be engineered in magnetic nanostructures by utilizing spin dependent tunneling and spin dependent scattering effects. In magnetic tunnel junctions with ...
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Highly spin-polarized electron currents can be engineered in magnetic nanostructures by utilizing spin dependent tunneling and spin dependent scattering effects. In magnetic tunnel junctions with crystalline MgO barriers, a giant asymmetry in tunneling probability for the majority and minority electrons gives rise to currents which are more than 85% spin polarized at low temperatures and corresponding tunneling magnetoresistance values of more than 200% at room temperature. In a three terminal magnetic tunnel transistor (MTT), the electron current is further spin-filtered in a magnetic base layer so that the collector current can become nearly completely spin-polarized. The MTT allows for the exploration of spin dependent scattering of hot electrons and can be used as a spin injector into semiconductors, but the high energy of the injected electrons leads to modest values of spin polarization. More highly spin polarized currents can be injected into semiconductors using tunnel spin injectors such as CoFe/MgO.Less
Highly spin-polarized electron currents can be engineered in magnetic nanostructures by utilizing spin dependent tunneling and spin dependent scattering effects. In magnetic tunnel junctions with crystalline MgO barriers, a giant asymmetry in tunneling probability for the majority and minority electrons gives rise to currents which are more than 85% spin polarized at low temperatures and corresponding tunneling magnetoresistance values of more than 200% at room temperature. In a three terminal magnetic tunnel transistor (MTT), the electron current is further spin-filtered in a magnetic base layer so that the collector current can become nearly completely spin-polarized. The MTT allows for the exploration of spin dependent scattering of hot electrons and can be used as a spin injector into semiconductors, but the high energy of the injected electrons leads to modest values of spin polarization. More highly spin polarized currents can be injected into semiconductors using tunnel spin injectors such as CoFe/MgO.
John W. Orton
- Published in print:
- 2008
- Published Online:
- January 2010
- ISBN:
- 9780199559107
- eISBN:
- 9780191712975
- Item type:
- book
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199559107.001.0001
- Subject:
- Physics, Crystallography: Physics
This book provides an overview of the fascinating spectrum of semiconductor physics, devices, and applications, presented from a historical perspective. It covers the subject from its inception in ...
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This book provides an overview of the fascinating spectrum of semiconductor physics, devices, and applications, presented from a historical perspective. It covers the subject from its inception in the early 19th century up to the recent millennium. The first chapter introduces the essential properties of semiconductor materials, together with a brief account of their distribution within the Periodic Table, while the second chapter outlines their development from Faraday's work on silver sulphide up to their application in microwave radar during the Second World War. Chapter three deals with the dramatic events leading to the invention of the transistor at Bell Labs in 1947, followed in chapter four by the application of silicon to the integrated circuit and to a series of power devices with wide ranging applications. Chapter five introduces a number of compound semiconductor materials with application to microwave and optical devices, chapter six describes the development of low-dimensional and nano-scale structures, while chapters seven, eight and nine cover light-emitting devices, fibre-optic communications and applications in the infra-red. The final chapter is concerned with large area applications such as LCD TVs and photovoltaics. The book emphasises the vital relationship between semiconductor physics, materials and devices and places this discussion within the context of appropriate applications. The book is organised so as to provide a text that is light on mathematics, together with a series of ‘boxes’ describing important specific examples with greater mathematical detail.Less
This book provides an overview of the fascinating spectrum of semiconductor physics, devices, and applications, presented from a historical perspective. It covers the subject from its inception in the early 19th century up to the recent millennium. The first chapter introduces the essential properties of semiconductor materials, together with a brief account of their distribution within the Periodic Table, while the second chapter outlines their development from Faraday's work on silver sulphide up to their application in microwave radar during the Second World War. Chapter three deals with the dramatic events leading to the invention of the transistor at Bell Labs in 1947, followed in chapter four by the application of silicon to the integrated circuit and to a series of power devices with wide ranging applications. Chapter five introduces a number of compound semiconductor materials with application to microwave and optical devices, chapter six describes the development of low-dimensional and nano-scale structures, while chapters seven, eight and nine cover light-emitting devices, fibre-optic communications and applications in the infra-red. The final chapter is concerned with large area applications such as LCD TVs and photovoltaics. The book emphasises the vital relationship between semiconductor physics, materials and devices and places this discussion within the context of appropriate applications. The book is organised so as to provide a text that is light on mathematics, together with a series of ‘boxes’ describing important specific examples with greater mathematical detail.
John Orton
- Published in print:
- 2008
- Published Online:
- January 2010
- ISBN:
- 9780199559107
- eISBN:
- 9780191712975
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199559107.003.0004
- Subject:
- Physics, Crystallography: Physics
This chapter describes the establishment of silicon as the dominant semiconductor in modern electronics. Not only was it the preferred material for the manufacture of integrated circuits, but also ...
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This chapter describes the establishment of silicon as the dominant semiconductor in modern electronics. Not only was it the preferred material for the manufacture of integrated circuits, but also for the development of power devices. The invention of the integrated circuit by Jack Kilby at Texas Instruments is described, together with that of the planar IC by Robert Noyce at Fairchild Semiconductor. The subsequent growth of IC technology is outlined, depending very largely on the invention of the MOS transistor in 1960. A brief outline is given of silicon wafer production and the application of photolithography in defining IC patterns. Moore's Law is explained and a short discussion of Japanese successes in the IC business during the 1970s is interpolated. The parallel development of silicon power devices is described, together with a selection of typical applications. The chapter concludes with an account of some exciting developments in silicon physics, including the discovery of the quantum Hall effect.Less
This chapter describes the establishment of silicon as the dominant semiconductor in modern electronics. Not only was it the preferred material for the manufacture of integrated circuits, but also for the development of power devices. The invention of the integrated circuit by Jack Kilby at Texas Instruments is described, together with that of the planar IC by Robert Noyce at Fairchild Semiconductor. The subsequent growth of IC technology is outlined, depending very largely on the invention of the MOS transistor in 1960. A brief outline is given of silicon wafer production and the application of photolithography in defining IC patterns. Moore's Law is explained and a short discussion of Japanese successes in the IC business during the 1970s is interpolated. The parallel development of silicon power devices is described, together with a selection of typical applications. The chapter concludes with an account of some exciting developments in silicon physics, including the discovery of the quantum Hall effect.
John Orton
- Published in print:
- 2008
- Published Online:
- January 2010
- ISBN:
- 9780199559107
- eISBN:
- 9780191712975
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199559107.003.0005
- Subject:
- Physics, Crystallography: Physics
This chapter introduces the advent of compound semiconductors. III-V materials such as GaAs and InP found applications in semiconductor electronics during the 1960s, where silicon's electronic ...
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This chapter introduces the advent of compound semiconductors. III-V materials such as GaAs and InP found applications in semiconductor electronics during the 1960s, where silicon's electronic properties were unsuitable. For example, their electron mobilities were far greater than that of silicon, thus enabling them to compete in the field of microwave transistors. The direct band gap of GaAs made it suitable for LEDs and in 1962 the first semiconductor lasers were reported, leading to the first commercial application in 1978 in the CD player. The GaAs Gunn diode was invented in 1963 and both GaAs and InP devices developed into highly practical microwave sources during the 1970s. Once again, the importance of high quality single crystal growth is emphasised and the development of several epitaxial growth methods (LPE, VPE, MOVPE and MBE) led to the introduction of heterostructures. An important section covers the range of characterisation methods specially developed for the III-V materials.Less
This chapter introduces the advent of compound semiconductors. III-V materials such as GaAs and InP found applications in semiconductor electronics during the 1960s, where silicon's electronic properties were unsuitable. For example, their electron mobilities were far greater than that of silicon, thus enabling them to compete in the field of microwave transistors. The direct band gap of GaAs made it suitable for LEDs and in 1962 the first semiconductor lasers were reported, leading to the first commercial application in 1978 in the CD player. The GaAs Gunn diode was invented in 1963 and both GaAs and InP devices developed into highly practical microwave sources during the 1970s. Once again, the importance of high quality single crystal growth is emphasised and the development of several epitaxial growth methods (LPE, VPE, MOVPE and MBE) led to the introduction of heterostructures. An important section covers the range of characterisation methods specially developed for the III-V materials.
John Orton
- Published in print:
- 2008
- Published Online:
- January 2010
- ISBN:
- 9780199559107
- eISBN:
- 9780191712975
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199559107.003.0006
- Subject:
- Physics, Crystallography: Physics
During the 1970s, III-V compounds and epitaxial crystal growth provided the basis for low dimensional structures (or nanostructures). The best known example is a GaAs quantum well within AlGaAs ...
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During the 1970s, III-V compounds and epitaxial crystal growth provided the basis for low dimensional structures (or nanostructures). The best known example is a GaAs quantum well within AlGaAs barriers, electrons, and holes being confined in well defined energy levels that determine the optical properties. Quantum wires and dots are also described. The quantum well laser and the vertical cavity laser (VCSEL) show considerable advantages over their heterostructure predecessor. Another exciting development was that of the two-dimensional electron gas (2DEG) at an interface between semiconductors with different band gaps. By doping only the wide gap material so as to separate the doping atoms from the resulting free electrons, ionised impurity scattering can be minimised and extremely high electron mobilities achieved. Such samples led to the discovery of the fractional quantum Hall effect and to high mobility FETs (HEMTs) for microwave applications. Mesoscopic systems and heterojunction bipolar transistors (HBTs) are also described.Less
During the 1970s, III-V compounds and epitaxial crystal growth provided the basis for low dimensional structures (or nanostructures). The best known example is a GaAs quantum well within AlGaAs barriers, electrons, and holes being confined in well defined energy levels that determine the optical properties. Quantum wires and dots are also described. The quantum well laser and the vertical cavity laser (VCSEL) show considerable advantages over their heterostructure predecessor. Another exciting development was that of the two-dimensional electron gas (2DEG) at an interface between semiconductors with different band gaps. By doping only the wide gap material so as to separate the doping atoms from the resulting free electrons, ionised impurity scattering can be minimised and extremely high electron mobilities achieved. Such samples led to the discovery of the fractional quantum Hall effect and to high mobility FETs (HEMTs) for microwave applications. Mesoscopic systems and heterojunction bipolar transistors (HBTs) are also described.
John Orton
- Published in print:
- 2008
- Published Online:
- January 2010
- ISBN:
- 9780199559107
- eISBN:
- 9780191712975
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199559107.003.0010
- Subject:
- Physics, Crystallography: Physics
This chapter discusses two important applications of non-single crystal semiconductors: photovoltaic solar cells and large screen liquid crystal display. The electrical and optical properties of ...
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This chapter discusses two important applications of non-single crystal semiconductors: photovoltaic solar cells and large screen liquid crystal display. The electrical and optical properties of polycrystalline and amorphous semiconductors are described. Grain boundaries play a major role in determining the behaviour of polycrystalline materials, acting as energy barriers to current flow and as trapping centres for minority carriers. Grain size and doping levels work together with barrier heights to control material properties. Amorphous materials are characterised by lack of order, but can function as semiconductors with low carrier mobilities. Amorphous silicon, containing hydrogen (aSi:H) is used to make thin film transistors, acting as switches at each pixel point in a LCTV display, thus facilitating matrix addressing. It is also used to make cheap solar cells. Crystalline silicon dominates the commercial field of PV solar cells, but is under challenge from a number of polycrystalline materials, such as CdS:CuInSe.Less
This chapter discusses two important applications of non-single crystal semiconductors: photovoltaic solar cells and large screen liquid crystal display. The electrical and optical properties of polycrystalline and amorphous semiconductors are described. Grain boundaries play a major role in determining the behaviour of polycrystalline materials, acting as energy barriers to current flow and as trapping centres for minority carriers. Grain size and doping levels work together with barrier heights to control material properties. Amorphous materials are characterised by lack of order, but can function as semiconductors with low carrier mobilities. Amorphous silicon, containing hydrogen (aSi:H) is used to make thin film transistors, acting as switches at each pixel point in a LCTV display, thus facilitating matrix addressing. It is also used to make cheap solar cells. Crystalline silicon dominates the commercial field of PV solar cells, but is under challenge from a number of polycrystalline materials, such as CdS:CuInSe.
M. P. Blencowe, A. D. Armour, and A. J. Rimberg
- Published in print:
- 2012
- Published Online:
- September 2012
- ISBN:
- 9780199691388
- eISBN:
- 9780191742255
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199691388.003.0002
- Subject:
- Physics, Theoretical, Computational, and Statistical Physics
This chapter investigates the quantum versus classical dynamics of a microwave cavity-coupled-Cooper-pair transistor (CPT) system, where a variable applied dc bias causes the system to tunably ...
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This chapter investigates the quantum versus classical dynamics of a microwave cavity-coupled-Cooper-pair transistor (CPT) system, where a variable applied dc bias causes the system to tunably self-oscillate via the ac Josephson effect. An essential feature of the system is that the dc bias does not significantly affect the high quality factor of the cavity mode to which the CPT predominantly couples. The classical, nonlinear dynamics of the system exhibits chaotic, as well as aperiodic motions depending on the initial conditions and the nature and strengths of the damping/noise forces. The corresponding quantum dynamics exhibits such phenomena as dynamical tunnelling and the generation of nonclassical states from initial classical states. Obviating the need for an external ac-drive line, which typically is harder to noise filter than a dc bias line, the self-oscillating system described here has considerable promise for demonstrating macroscopic quantum dynamical behaviour.Less
This chapter investigates the quantum versus classical dynamics of a microwave cavity-coupled-Cooper-pair transistor (CPT) system, where a variable applied dc bias causes the system to tunably self-oscillate via the ac Josephson effect. An essential feature of the system is that the dc bias does not significantly affect the high quality factor of the cavity mode to which the CPT predominantly couples. The classical, nonlinear dynamics of the system exhibits chaotic, as well as aperiodic motions depending on the initial conditions and the nature and strengths of the damping/noise forces. The corresponding quantum dynamics exhibits such phenomena as dynamical tunnelling and the generation of nonclassical states from initial classical states. Obviating the need for an external ac-drive line, which typically is harder to noise filter than a dc bias line, the self-oscillating system described here has considerable promise for demonstrating macroscopic quantum dynamical behaviour.
David Segal
- Published in print:
- 2018
- Published Online:
- April 2019
- ISBN:
- 9780198834311
- eISBN:
- 9780191872426
- Item type:
- book
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/oso/9780198834311.001.0001
- Subject:
- Physics, History of Physics, Condensed Matter Physics / Materials
The Internet has allowed people to access information that previously was difficult to obtain. It is important to know the information is true and accurate and does not represent ‘fake news’ or ...
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The Internet has allowed people to access information that previously was difficult to obtain. It is important to know the information is true and accurate and does not represent ‘fake news’ or alternative facts. Patents describe inventions and contain accurate information, as patents are examined and their accuracy can be challenged. This book shows how patents and the inventions they describe have shaped the modern world, that is the world in the twenty-first century. Patent documents that date from the mid-nineteenth century to the present time are used in the text and the subject matter covers many technical areas: for example, Morse code, the diode, triode, transistors, television, frozen foods, ring-pulls for soft drink cans, board games such as Monopoly, gene editing, metamaterials, MRI, computerised tomography, insulin and monoclonal antibodies such as Herceptin. Up to a page of text is used for each entry and the text is backed up by drawings from patent documents. Patent numbers are included to allow interested readers to trace the documents. Inventions described in the patents are placed in a historical perspective. For example, the role of the cavity magnetron and radar are described in the context of the Second World War, whereas the diode is discussed in the development of broadcasting at the beginning of the twentieth century. Entries cover examples from life sciences, engineering and physical sciences in the modern world.Less
The Internet has allowed people to access information that previously was difficult to obtain. It is important to know the information is true and accurate and does not represent ‘fake news’ or alternative facts. Patents describe inventions and contain accurate information, as patents are examined and their accuracy can be challenged. This book shows how patents and the inventions they describe have shaped the modern world, that is the world in the twenty-first century. Patent documents that date from the mid-nineteenth century to the present time are used in the text and the subject matter covers many technical areas: for example, Morse code, the diode, triode, transistors, television, frozen foods, ring-pulls for soft drink cans, board games such as Monopoly, gene editing, metamaterials, MRI, computerised tomography, insulin and monoclonal antibodies such as Herceptin. Up to a page of text is used for each entry and the text is backed up by drawings from patent documents. Patent numbers are included to allow interested readers to trace the documents. Inventions described in the patents are placed in a historical perspective. For example, the role of the cavity magnetron and radar are described in the context of the Second World War, whereas the diode is discussed in the development of broadcasting at the beginning of the twentieth century. Entries cover examples from life sciences, engineering and physical sciences in the modern world.