Joseph E. Stiglitz, José Antonio Ocampo, Shari Spiegel, Ricardo Ffrench-Davis, and Deepak Nayyar
- Published in print:
- 2006
- Published Online:
- September 2006
- ISBN:
- 9780199288144
- eISBN:
- 9780191603884
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/0199288143.003.0001
- Subject:
- Economics and Finance, Development, Growth, and Environmental
This chapter introduces the book and lays out the key questions of macroeconomic policy. Economists differ greatly in their views and policy prescriptions. All economic policies, though, have ...
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This chapter introduces the book and lays out the key questions of macroeconomic policy. Economists differ greatly in their views and policy prescriptions. All economic policies, though, have trade-offs. Policy choices come with risks, and the risks involve different beneficiaries and victims. Political processes play a key role in macroeconomic policy just as they do in most arenas of economic decision-making. If there were no alternative policies, or if one approach were best for everyone, then we could leave the design of economic policy to domestic and international technocrats and bureaucrats. But there are always alternatives and trade-offs so choices are political in nature and cannot be left to technocrats.Less
This chapter introduces the book and lays out the key questions of macroeconomic policy. Economists differ greatly in their views and policy prescriptions. All economic policies, though, have trade-offs. Policy choices come with risks, and the risks involve different beneficiaries and victims. Political processes play a key role in macroeconomic policy just as they do in most arenas of economic decision-making. If there were no alternative policies, or if one approach were best for everyone, then we could leave the design of economic policy to domestic and international technocrats and bureaucrats. But there are always alternatives and trade-offs so choices are political in nature and cannot be left to technocrats.
Joseph E. Stiglitz, José Antonio Ocampo, Shari Spiegel, Ricardo Ffrench-Davis, and Deepak Nayyar
- Published in print:
- 2006
- Published Online:
- September 2006
- ISBN:
- 9780199288144
- eISBN:
- 9780191603884
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/0199288143.003.0002
- Subject:
- Economics and Finance, Development, Growth, and Environmental
This chapter begins with the idea that at the most general level, the goal of economic policy is to maximize long-term societal well-being in an equitable and sustainable manner. It addresses in ...
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This chapter begins with the idea that at the most general level, the goal of economic policy is to maximize long-term societal well-being in an equitable and sustainable manner. It addresses in detail the meaning and relevance of the goals of economic policy that are often put forward — from enhancing economic security and reducing unemployment, to reducing inflation, enhancing growth, and maintaining external balance. It also examines the link between stability and growth, and between short-term growth and sustainable growth. More specifically, the chapter critiques the narrow focus of the Washington consensus on price stability and emphasizes that economists should, instead, focus on long-term sustainable growth. The chapter concludes by highlighting the broader social consequences that choosing alternative economic policies may have and by emphasizing that all economic policies have trade-offs.Less
This chapter begins with the idea that at the most general level, the goal of economic policy is to maximize long-term societal well-being in an equitable and sustainable manner. It addresses in detail the meaning and relevance of the goals of economic policy that are often put forward — from enhancing economic security and reducing unemployment, to reducing inflation, enhancing growth, and maintaining external balance. It also examines the link between stability and growth, and between short-term growth and sustainable growth. More specifically, the chapter critiques the narrow focus of the Washington consensus on price stability and emphasizes that economists should, instead, focus on long-term sustainable growth. The chapter concludes by highlighting the broader social consequences that choosing alternative economic policies may have and by emphasizing that all economic policies have trade-offs.
Frank Johansson and Dirk Johannes Mikolajewski
- Published in print:
- 2008
- Published Online:
- September 2008
- ISBN:
- 9780199230693
- eISBN:
- 9780191710889
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199230693.003.0010
- Subject:
- Biology, Ecology, Animal Biology
Understanding the ecology and evolution of morphological defences in animals and plants may help us to understand and protect biodiversity. Several species of dragonfly larvae express lateral and ...
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Understanding the ecology and evolution of morphological defences in animals and plants may help us to understand and protect biodiversity. Several species of dragonfly larvae express lateral and dorsal abdominal spines. In some species these spines seem to be fixed, and in others they are induced by the presence of predatory fish. Larger spines are adaptations to reduce predation risk by fish, but incur a cost because large spines are associated with a higher predation risk by invertebrate predators. The difference in vulnerability to different predators has the potential to affect temporal and spatial variation in the morphology of dragonfly larvae, and may ultimately result in speciation. Future focus on the joint evolution of correlated defensive traits such as morphology and behaviour and their plasticity might be fruitful for a better understanding of the development of animal diversity.Less
Understanding the ecology and evolution of morphological defences in animals and plants may help us to understand and protect biodiversity. Several species of dragonfly larvae express lateral and dorsal abdominal spines. In some species these spines seem to be fixed, and in others they are induced by the presence of predatory fish. Larger spines are adaptations to reduce predation risk by fish, but incur a cost because large spines are associated with a higher predation risk by invertebrate predators. The difference in vulnerability to different predators has the potential to affect temporal and spatial variation in the morphology of dragonfly larvae, and may ultimately result in speciation. Future focus on the joint evolution of correlated defensive traits such as morphology and behaviour and their plasticity might be fruitful for a better understanding of the development of animal diversity.
Steven L. Chown and Sue W. Nicolson
- Published in print:
- 2004
- Published Online:
- September 2007
- ISBN:
- 9780198515494
- eISBN:
- 9780191705649
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780198515494.003.0002
- Subject:
- Biology, Animal Biology
Nutritional ecology covers the behavioural, physiological, and ecological aspects of nutrition. As in many areas of insect physiology, most information is available for caterpillars and locusts, ...
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Nutritional ecology covers the behavioural, physiological, and ecological aspects of nutrition. As in many areas of insect physiology, most information is available for caterpillars and locusts, which are continuous feeders. Locusts have been used as a model system in showing how animals eating unbalanced foods must compromise between the intakes of different nutrients. At the cellular level, advances in digestion and absorption, including the ways in which insects deal with plant secondary compounds, are reviewed. The gut is the major interface between the insect and its environment and knowledge of its physiology is important in the development of new control methods. This chapter also forms a natural choice for placement of a discussion of growth rate and development because these parameters are ultimately dependent on food quantity and quality, strongly modified by environmental temperature.Less
Nutritional ecology covers the behavioural, physiological, and ecological aspects of nutrition. As in many areas of insect physiology, most information is available for caterpillars and locusts, which are continuous feeders. Locusts have been used as a model system in showing how animals eating unbalanced foods must compromise between the intakes of different nutrients. At the cellular level, advances in digestion and absorption, including the ways in which insects deal with plant secondary compounds, are reviewed. The gut is the major interface between the insect and its environment and knowledge of its physiology is important in the development of new control methods. This chapter also forms a natural choice for placement of a discussion of growth rate and development because these parameters are ultimately dependent on food quantity and quality, strongly modified by environmental temperature.
James J. Elser and Dag O. Hessen
- Published in print:
- 2005
- Published Online:
- September 2007
- ISBN:
- 9780198564836
- eISBN:
- 9780191713828
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780198564836.003.0002
- Subject:
- Biology, Aquatic Biology
Food webs are among the most complex entities under study in modern biology. But what if major features of their structure and dynamics were the product of a relatively few simple rules? This chapter ...
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Food webs are among the most complex entities under study in modern biology. But what if major features of their structure and dynamics were the product of a relatively few simple rules? This chapter describes perspectives arising from the field of biological stoichiometry to argue that major features of food web function in ecosystems are the outcome of a relatively straightforward combination of chemical principles (mass balance, stoichiometric combination) of entities experiencing the Darwinian selective algorithm. It argues that the fate of energy or carbon in food webs, to a major extent, is governed by the availability and packaging of key nutrients like nitrogen and phosphorus. Indeed, phenomena such as transfer efficiency, length of food chains, community composition, degree of omnivory, and the relative importance of grazing versus detrital pathways all appear to have a strong stoichiometric component and the underlying rules generating these phenomena involve fundamental evolutionary trade-offs and coevolutionary dynamics.Less
Food webs are among the most complex entities under study in modern biology. But what if major features of their structure and dynamics were the product of a relatively few simple rules? This chapter describes perspectives arising from the field of biological stoichiometry to argue that major features of food web function in ecosystems are the outcome of a relatively straightforward combination of chemical principles (mass balance, stoichiometric combination) of entities experiencing the Darwinian selective algorithm. It argues that the fate of energy or carbon in food webs, to a major extent, is governed by the availability and packaging of key nutrients like nitrogen and phosphorus. Indeed, phenomena such as transfer efficiency, length of food chains, community composition, degree of omnivory, and the relative importance of grazing versus detrital pathways all appear to have a strong stoichiometric component and the underlying rules generating these phenomena involve fundamental evolutionary trade-offs and coevolutionary dynamics.
Kevin S. McCann
- Published in print:
- 2011
- Published Online:
- October 2017
- ISBN:
- 9780691134178
- eISBN:
- 9781400840687
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Princeton University Press
- DOI:
- 10.23943/princeton/9780691134178.003.0008
- Subject:
- Biology, Ecology
This chapter considers four-species modules and the role of generalism (effectively a three-species module with a consumer feeding on two resources). It first examines how generalists affect the ...
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This chapter considers four-species modules and the role of generalism (effectively a three-species module with a consumer feeding on two resources). It first examines how generalists affect the dynamics of food webs by focusing on a set of modules that contrast generalist consumer dynamics relative to the specialist case. It then discusses organismal trade-offs that play a role in governing the diamond food web module and the intraguild predation module, arguing that such tradeoffs influence the flux of matter, the organization of interaction strengths, and ultimately the stability of communities. The chapter also reviews empirical evidence showing that apparent competition and the diamond module with and without intraguild predation are ubiquitous, and that weak interactions in simple modules seem to promote less variable population dynamics.Less
This chapter considers four-species modules and the role of generalism (effectively a three-species module with a consumer feeding on two resources). It first examines how generalists affect the dynamics of food webs by focusing on a set of modules that contrast generalist consumer dynamics relative to the specialist case. It then discusses organismal trade-offs that play a role in governing the diamond food web module and the intraguild predation module, arguing that such tradeoffs influence the flux of matter, the organization of interaction strengths, and ultimately the stability of communities. The chapter also reviews empirical evidence showing that apparent competition and the diamond module with and without intraguild predation are ubiquitous, and that weak interactions in simple modules seem to promote less variable population dynamics.
Catherine L. Parr and Heloise Gibb
- Published in print:
- 2009
- Published Online:
- February 2010
- ISBN:
- 9780199544639
- eISBN:
- 9780191720192
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199544639.003.0005
- Subject:
- Biology, Ecology, Animal Biology
Competition occurs when different species or individuals require the same limiting resources. It can occur within colonies for reproductive rights, between colonies of the same species (intraspecific ...
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Competition occurs when different species or individuals require the same limiting resources. It can occur within colonies for reproductive rights, between colonies of the same species (intraspecific competition) and between populations of different species (interspecific competition). Evidence for intraspecific competition includes overdispersion of nests, territoriality, and reallocation of castes in response to new neighbours. Evidence for interspecific competition includes spatial ant mosaics, agonistic behaviour, chemical defence and behavioural dominance hierarchies. Experiments in interspecific competition show that it is highly conditional varying with resource quality and quantity, biotic and abiotic conditions. The discovery–;dominance trade‐off suggests a possible mechanism for species coexistence. The dominance–impoverishment relationship suggests that species richness is reduced where the abundance of dominant ants is high.Less
Competition occurs when different species or individuals require the same limiting resources. It can occur within colonies for reproductive rights, between colonies of the same species (intraspecific competition) and between populations of different species (interspecific competition). Evidence for intraspecific competition includes overdispersion of nests, territoriality, and reallocation of castes in response to new neighbours. Evidence for interspecific competition includes spatial ant mosaics, agonistic behaviour, chemical defence and behavioural dominance hierarchies. Experiments in interspecific competition show that it is highly conditional varying with resource quality and quantity, biotic and abiotic conditions. The discovery–;dominance trade‐off suggests a possible mechanism for species coexistence. The dominance–impoverishment relationship suggests that species richness is reduced where the abundance of dominant ants is high.
Lori Lach, Catherine L. Parr, and Kirsti L. Abbott
- Published in print:
- 2009
- Published Online:
- February 2010
- ISBN:
- 9780199544639
- eISBN:
- 9780191720192
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199544639.003.0017
- Subject:
- Biology, Ecology, Animal Biology
With their diverse morphological specializations, extensive behavioural repertoire, and ability to inhabit a variety of environments, ants are model organisms for testing ecological theory and ...
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With their diverse morphological specializations, extensive behavioural repertoire, and ability to inhabit a variety of environments, ants are model organisms for testing ecological theory and studying evolutionary processes. Their study has contributed and will continue to contribute to our understanding of ecology more broadly. Future research on bottom‐up and top‐down forces affecting ant assemblages, trade‐offs in life history strategies, and the underpinnings of colony structure will undoubtedly advance our understanding of the ecological success of ants. Research on ants will further be facilitated by the resolution of taxonomic uncertainty, integration of taxonomy with robust phylogenies, more attention on hypogaeic, arboreal, and otherwise cryptic species, sharing of information, development of new tools, and discovery of new applications and their communication to the broader society. Climate change, biological invasions, and the landscape changes associated with increased human populations present new challenges and opportunities for understanding ants and their ecology.Less
With their diverse morphological specializations, extensive behavioural repertoire, and ability to inhabit a variety of environments, ants are model organisms for testing ecological theory and studying evolutionary processes. Their study has contributed and will continue to contribute to our understanding of ecology more broadly. Future research on bottom‐up and top‐down forces affecting ant assemblages, trade‐offs in life history strategies, and the underpinnings of colony structure will undoubtedly advance our understanding of the ecological success of ants. Research on ants will further be facilitated by the resolution of taxonomic uncertainty, integration of taxonomy with robust phylogenies, more attention on hypogaeic, arboreal, and otherwise cryptic species, sharing of information, development of new tools, and discovery of new applications and their communication to the broader society. Climate change, biological invasions, and the landscape changes associated with increased human populations present new challenges and opportunities for understanding ants and their ecology.
David S. Wilcove
- Published in print:
- 2010
- Published Online:
- February 2010
- ISBN:
- 9780199554232
- eISBN:
- 9780191720666
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199554232.003.0013
- Subject:
- Biology, Ecology, Biodiversity / Conservation Biology
In this chapter, David Wilcove focuses on endangered species management, emphasizing the United States of America (US) experience. Endangered species conservation has three phases: identification, ...
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In this chapter, David Wilcove focuses on endangered species management, emphasizing the United States of America (US) experience. Endangered species conservation has three phases: identification, protection, and recovery. Protection can be directed toward species, subspecies, or populations. There are important economic and ecological trade‐offs associated with protecting subspecies and populations. Consistent, quantitative criteria for determining the status of species have been developed by the IUCN. Protection of endangered species requires accurate knowledge of the threats to those species, the location of existing populations, and land ownership patterns. Recovery of many endangered species will require continual, active management of the habitat or continual efforts to control populations of alien species. Incentives may be needed to entice people to participate in recovery programs.Less
In this chapter, David Wilcove focuses on endangered species management, emphasizing the United States of America (US) experience. Endangered species conservation has three phases: identification, protection, and recovery. Protection can be directed toward species, subspecies, or populations. There are important economic and ecological trade‐offs associated with protecting subspecies and populations. Consistent, quantitative criteria for determining the status of species have been developed by the IUCN. Protection of endangered species requires accurate knowledge of the threats to those species, the location of existing populations, and land ownership patterns. Recovery of many endangered species will require continual, active management of the habitat or continual efforts to control populations of alien species. Incentives may be needed to entice people to participate in recovery programs.
Larry S. Temkin
- Published in print:
- 2012
- Published Online:
- May 2012
- ISBN:
- 9780199759446
- eISBN:
- 9780199932214
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199759446.003.0002
- Subject:
- Philosophy, General, Moral Philosophy
This chapter begins by presenting a general schema of aggregation. It then presents several Standard Views about trade-offs between quality and number, focusing on cases where the trade-offs involve ...
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This chapter begins by presenting a general schema of aggregation. It then presents several Standard Views about trade-offs between quality and number, focusing on cases where the trade-offs involve different individuals. The aim is neither to attack nor to defend these views. Instead, it seeks to articulate them and then raise questions about their consistency and implications. It shows that the First and Second Standard Views are seemingly inconsistent with the transitivity of “better than.” At least, this is so given the plausible assumption that there is, or at least could be, a spectrum of benefits, ranging from very high quality benefits to very low quality benefits, such that the First Standard View would be relevant for comparing outcomes involving benefits that were “near” each other on the spectrum, and the Second Standard View would be relevant for comparing outcomes involving benefits that were “far apart” on the spectrum. Thus, we are faced with a dilemma. We must either show that there couldn't be a spectrum of benefits that stand together in the relation suggested, or we must give up the First Standard View, the Second Standard View, or the transitivity of “better than”.Less
This chapter begins by presenting a general schema of aggregation. It then presents several Standard Views about trade-offs between quality and number, focusing on cases where the trade-offs involve different individuals. The aim is neither to attack nor to defend these views. Instead, it seeks to articulate them and then raise questions about their consistency and implications. It shows that the First and Second Standard Views are seemingly inconsistent with the transitivity of “better than.” At least, this is so given the plausible assumption that there is, or at least could be, a spectrum of benefits, ranging from very high quality benefits to very low quality benefits, such that the First Standard View would be relevant for comparing outcomes involving benefits that were “near” each other on the spectrum, and the Second Standard View would be relevant for comparing outcomes involving benefits that were “far apart” on the spectrum. Thus, we are faced with a dilemma. We must either show that there couldn't be a spectrum of benefits that stand together in the relation suggested, or we must give up the First Standard View, the Second Standard View, or the transitivity of “better than”.
Larry S. Temkin
- Published in print:
- 2012
- Published Online:
- May 2012
- ISBN:
- 9780199759446
- eISBN:
- 9780199932214
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199759446.003.0003
- Subject:
- Philosophy, General, Moral Philosophy
This chapter further explores problems about trade-offs by examining a “new” principle of aggregation: the Disperse Additional Burdens View—short for the more cumbersome Disperse Additional Burdens ...
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This chapter further explores problems about trade-offs by examining a “new” principle of aggregation: the Disperse Additional Burdens View—short for the more cumbersome Disperse Additional Burdens So as to Prevent Any Individual from Having to Bear a Substantial Additional Burden. This is called a “new” principle of aggregation because it is not typically distinguished, or discussed, as a distinct principle in the philosophical literature. Nevertheless, this principle reflects familiar modes of reasoning. In fact, it can be seen as a natural extension of Chapter 2's Second Standard View. This principle is plausible and one that plays an important role in the assessment of outcomes. However, worries arise when one considers iterated applications of the principle. The chapter aims to illuminate this principle and the worries it generates. It shows that we may have to either reject this principle or refuse to allow ourselves to be repeatedly guided by it. Some principles of aggregation are complete. For any two alternatives, they generate a comparative ranking of those alternatives. But a principle of aggregation may also be incomplete. It may rank some, but not all, alternatives in comparison with each other. The principle of aggregation the chapter explores is incomplete.Less
This chapter further explores problems about trade-offs by examining a “new” principle of aggregation: the Disperse Additional Burdens View—short for the more cumbersome Disperse Additional Burdens So as to Prevent Any Individual from Having to Bear a Substantial Additional Burden. This is called a “new” principle of aggregation because it is not typically distinguished, or discussed, as a distinct principle in the philosophical literature. Nevertheless, this principle reflects familiar modes of reasoning. In fact, it can be seen as a natural extension of Chapter 2's Second Standard View. This principle is plausible and one that plays an important role in the assessment of outcomes. However, worries arise when one considers iterated applications of the principle. The chapter aims to illuminate this principle and the worries it generates. It shows that we may have to either reject this principle or refuse to allow ourselves to be repeatedly guided by it. Some principles of aggregation are complete. For any two alternatives, they generate a comparative ranking of those alternatives. But a principle of aggregation may also be incomplete. It may rank some, but not all, alternatives in comparison with each other. The principle of aggregation the chapter explores is incomplete.
Larry S. Temkin
- Published in print:
- 2012
- Published Online:
- May 2012
- ISBN:
- 9780199759446
- eISBN:
- 9780199932214
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199759446.003.0004
- Subject:
- Philosophy, General, Moral Philosophy
Chapters 2 and 3 dealt with aggregation and problems about trade-offs between lives. This chapter argues that similar issues arise regarding aggregation and trade-offs within lives. Intrapersonal ...
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Chapters 2 and 3 dealt with aggregation and problems about trade-offs between lives. This chapter argues that similar issues arise regarding aggregation and trade-offs within lives. Intrapersonal problems about aggregation have been less widely recognized than their interpersonal counterparts, and they are perhaps of less practical significance. However, they raise similar theoretical questions that are deeply problematic. The chapter begins by commenting on two related factors that have obscured the fact that there are problems about aggregation within lives: the separateness of individuals, and the possibility of compensation within a life, but not between lives. It then considers various reasons to reject a simple additive-aggregationist approach for measuring the goodness of an individual life. The considerations presented here will help with understanding Chapter 5, where problems about trade-off s within lives are discussed.Less
Chapters 2 and 3 dealt with aggregation and problems about trade-offs between lives. This chapter argues that similar issues arise regarding aggregation and trade-offs within lives. Intrapersonal problems about aggregation have been less widely recognized than their interpersonal counterparts, and they are perhaps of less practical significance. However, they raise similar theoretical questions that are deeply problematic. The chapter begins by commenting on two related factors that have obscured the fact that there are problems about aggregation within lives: the separateness of individuals, and the possibility of compensation within a life, but not between lives. It then considers various reasons to reject a simple additive-aggregationist approach for measuring the goodness of an individual life. The considerations presented here will help with understanding Chapter 5, where problems about trade-off s within lives are discussed.
Larry S. Temkin
- Published in print:
- 2012
- Published Online:
- May 2012
- ISBN:
- 9780199759446
- eISBN:
- 9780199932214
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199759446.003.0005
- Subject:
- Philosophy, General, Moral Philosophy
Chapter 4 argued that we should reject Sidgwick's conception of individual self-interest because it assumes a simple additive-aggregationist approach for assessing the overall value of a life. ...
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Chapter 4 argued that we should reject Sidgwick's conception of individual self-interest because it assumes a simple additive-aggregationist approach for assessing the overall value of a life. Specifically, it was argued that in some cases anti-additive aggregationist principles are applicable within lives, as well as between lives, including analogues of Chapter 2's Second Standard View and Chapter 3's Disperse Additional Burdens View. However, as should be evident, like the anti-additive aggregationist principles of Chapters 2 and 3, Chapter 4's analogues of those principles are incomplete. They are only applicable to, and generate rankings for, certain cases. In other cases, they are silent, and we must rely on other principles to rank alternative lives. However, often the principles that are appropriate for ranking alternative lives generate judgments that are incompatible with the judgments generated by the anti-additive-aggregationist principles, if “all-things-considered better than” (in this book's wide reason-implying sense) is a transitive relation. This chapter shows that, as with rankings involving different lives, the relevance of different principles for ranking individual lives raises deep problems about aggregation and trade-offs within lives.Less
Chapter 4 argued that we should reject Sidgwick's conception of individual self-interest because it assumes a simple additive-aggregationist approach for assessing the overall value of a life. Specifically, it was argued that in some cases anti-additive aggregationist principles are applicable within lives, as well as between lives, including analogues of Chapter 2's Second Standard View and Chapter 3's Disperse Additional Burdens View. However, as should be evident, like the anti-additive aggregationist principles of Chapters 2 and 3, Chapter 4's analogues of those principles are incomplete. They are only applicable to, and generate rankings for, certain cases. In other cases, they are silent, and we must rely on other principles to rank alternative lives. However, often the principles that are appropriate for ranking alternative lives generate judgments that are incompatible with the judgments generated by the anti-additive-aggregationist principles, if “all-things-considered better than” (in this book's wide reason-implying sense) is a transitive relation. This chapter shows that, as with rankings involving different lives, the relevance of different principles for ranking individual lives raises deep problems about aggregation and trade-offs within lives.
Larry S. Temkin
- Published in print:
- 2012
- Published Online:
- May 2012
- ISBN:
- 9780199759446
- eISBN:
- 9780199932214
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199759446.003.0009
- Subject:
- Philosophy, General, Moral Philosophy
Chapters 2 through 5 presented various Spectrum Arguments which revealed an inconsistency between certain standard views regarding how to make trade-offs between different alternatives along a ...
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Chapters 2 through 5 presented various Spectrum Arguments which revealed an inconsistency between certain standard views regarding how to make trade-offs between different alternatives along a spectrum, certain factual premises, and the transitivity of the “better than” relation (in this book's wide reason-implying sense). Many people are suspicious of Spectrum Arguments, and many objections have been raised to such arguments. Some of these have already been addressed. But others have not. This chapter presents and responds to the most serious of the remaining objections, of which there are three main types. It considers a representative example of each type. Type one responds to this book's arguments by appealing to the significance of there being different kinds of alternatives along these spectrums. Type two claims that these arguments are versions of the Standard Sorites Paradox. Type three suggests that these arguments elicit well-known heuristics and similarity-based reasoning schemes that are leading our intuitions astray. It is argued that none of these objections is compelling.Less
Chapters 2 through 5 presented various Spectrum Arguments which revealed an inconsistency between certain standard views regarding how to make trade-offs between different alternatives along a spectrum, certain factual premises, and the transitivity of the “better than” relation (in this book's wide reason-implying sense). Many people are suspicious of Spectrum Arguments, and many objections have been raised to such arguments. Some of these have already been addressed. But others have not. This chapter presents and responds to the most serious of the remaining objections, of which there are three main types. It considers a representative example of each type. Type one responds to this book's arguments by appealing to the significance of there being different kinds of alternatives along these spectrums. Type two claims that these arguments are versions of the Standard Sorites Paradox. Type three suggests that these arguments elicit well-known heuristics and similarity-based reasoning schemes that are leading our intuitions astray. It is argued that none of these objections is compelling.
Sergey N. Dorogovtsev
- Published in print:
- 2010
- Published Online:
- May 2010
- ISBN:
- 9780199548927
- eISBN:
- 9780191720574
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199548927.003.0014
- Subject:
- Physics, Theoretical, Computational, and Statistical Physics
This chapter demonstrates how a universal requirement for optimality leads to the complex structural organization of a network. It discusses a long-lasting criticism of the preferential concept and ...
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This chapter demonstrates how a universal requirement for optimality leads to the complex structural organization of a network. It discusses a long-lasting criticism of the preferential concept and describes existing approaches to the optimization-driven evolution of complex networks. In particular, the optimized trade-off model of a growing network is described, as well as models showing the explosive percolation phenomenon.Less
This chapter demonstrates how a universal requirement for optimality leads to the complex structural organization of a network. It discusses a long-lasting criticism of the preferential concept and describes existing approaches to the optimization-driven evolution of complex networks. In particular, the optimized trade-off model of a growing network is described, as well as models showing the explosive percolation phenomenon.
Kay Lehman Schlozman, Sidney Verba, and Henry E. Brady
- Published in print:
- 2012
- Published Online:
- October 2017
- ISBN:
- 9780691154848
- eISBN:
- 9781400841912
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Princeton University Press
- DOI:
- 10.23943/princeton/9780691154848.003.0004
- Subject:
- Political Science, Democratization
This chapter demonstrates how the United States deviates from the ideal of equal voice. It is based on the premise that equal consideration of the interests and preferences of all citizens is an ...
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This chapter demonstrates how the United States deviates from the ideal of equal voice. It is based on the premise that equal consideration of the interests and preferences of all citizens is an important component of democratic governance. Equal consideration depends on equal political voice. Those who express political voice—by voting or otherwise taking part in politics—are able to inform the government of their needs and preferences and to pressure public officials to pay attention; they are therefore in a better position to protect their interests. Thus the chapter considers if equal political voice—or, more realistically, more nearly equal voice than is currently the case—is a desirable goal.Less
This chapter demonstrates how the United States deviates from the ideal of equal voice. It is based on the premise that equal consideration of the interests and preferences of all citizens is an important component of democratic governance. Equal consideration depends on equal political voice. Those who express political voice—by voting or otherwise taking part in politics—are able to inform the government of their needs and preferences and to pressure public officials to pay attention; they are therefore in a better position to protect their interests. Thus the chapter considers if equal political voice—or, more realistically, more nearly equal voice than is currently the case—is a desirable goal.
William J. Talbott
- Published in print:
- 2010
- Published Online:
- January 2011
- ISBN:
- 9780195173482
- eISBN:
- 9780199872176
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195173482.003.0014
- Subject:
- Philosophy, Political Philosophy
This chapter responds to a variety of objections, including the following: that the account is not really consequentialist; that it gives too much priority to states as the guarantors of human ...
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This chapter responds to a variety of objections, including the following: that the account is not really consequentialist; that it gives too much priority to states as the guarantors of human rights; that it makes human rights too contingent; that it is implausible that there is any formula for equity; that the claim of first-person authority is implausible; that it leaves out important values, such as the badness of domination; and that it requires a division in practical reason that is “repugnant to common sense”. The chapter also explains why he depends on his readers to help detect his fudge factors and theoretical inertia.Less
This chapter responds to a variety of objections, including the following: that the account is not really consequentialist; that it gives too much priority to states as the guarantors of human rights; that it makes human rights too contingent; that it is implausible that there is any formula for equity; that the claim of first-person authority is implausible; that it leaves out important values, such as the badness of domination; and that it requires a division in practical reason that is “repugnant to common sense”. The chapter also explains why he depends on his readers to help detect his fudge factors and theoretical inertia.
W. Kip Viscusi
- Published in print:
- 1998
- Published Online:
- November 2003
- ISBN:
- 9780198293637
- eISBN:
- 9780191596995
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/0198293631.003.0004
- Subject:
- Economics and Finance, Microeconomics
Individual trade‐offs between risk and money provide the economic basis for assigning a value of life to the benefits of mortality risk reduction associated with government policies. Compensating ...
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Individual trade‐offs between risk and money provide the economic basis for assigning a value of life to the benefits of mortality risk reduction associated with government policies. Compensating wage differentials for job risks provides the most common empirical basis for such assessments, and a survey of these values of life estimates is reported. Use of these values for policy purposes raises a variety of challenging issues, particularly regarding heterogeneity in the value of life. The value‐of‐life estimates differ by income group and by age, for example, but how these differences should be reflected in policy decisions remains controversial.Less
Individual trade‐offs between risk and money provide the economic basis for assigning a value of life to the benefits of mortality risk reduction associated with government policies. Compensating wage differentials for job risks provides the most common empirical basis for such assessments, and a survey of these values of life estimates is reported. Use of these values for policy purposes raises a variety of challenging issues, particularly regarding heterogeneity in the value of life. The value‐of‐life estimates differ by income group and by age, for example, but how these differences should be reflected in policy decisions remains controversial.
W. Kip Viscusi
- Published in print:
- 1998
- Published Online:
- November 2003
- ISBN:
- 9780198293637
- eISBN:
- 9780191596995
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/0198293631.003.0005
- Subject:
- Economics and Finance, Microeconomics
Regulatory policies create a variety of risk–risk trade‐offs. People may engage in more risk‐taking behaviour in response to regulations that reduce the risks of their behaviour, as seatbelt use may ...
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Regulatory policies create a variety of risk–risk trade‐offs. People may engage in more risk‐taking behaviour in response to regulations that reduce the risks of their behaviour, as seatbelt use may encourage drivers to go faster and safety caps may create a ‘lulling effect’ whereby people are lulled into a fall sense of security regarding product risks. Regulations also entail resource expenditures that in effect make society poorer, which will increase risk levels, given the positive linkage between wealth and health. The resulting risk–risk trade‐offs can be linked theoretically to the value of life, implying that expenditures with a cost per life saved of more than ten times the value of life may in fact decrease individual health.Less
Regulatory policies create a variety of risk–risk trade‐offs. People may engage in more risk‐taking behaviour in response to regulations that reduce the risks of their behaviour, as seatbelt use may encourage drivers to go faster and safety caps may create a ‘lulling effect’ whereby people are lulled into a fall sense of security regarding product risks. Regulations also entail resource expenditures that in effect make society poorer, which will increase risk levels, given the positive linkage between wealth and health. The resulting risk–risk trade‐offs can be linked theoretically to the value of life, implying that expenditures with a cost per life saved of more than ten times the value of life may in fact decrease individual health.
Debra Satz
- Published in print:
- 2010
- Published Online:
- September 2010
- ISBN:
- 9780195311594
- eISBN:
- 9780199870714
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195311594.003.0007
- Subject:
- Philosophy, Political Philosophy
This chapter explores the normative issues posed by child labor. The first section briefly considers the conceptual problems of defining who is a child for the purposes of identifying child labor. ...
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This chapter explores the normative issues posed by child labor. The first section briefly considers the conceptual problems of defining who is a child for the purposes of identifying child labor. The second section explores several considerations that make child labor morally problematic, considerations that turn on all four of the parameters presented in chapter 4: weak agency, vulnerability, and extreme harm to the individual child and to society. Guided by these considerations, the author defends a position distinct from both those who argue that all child labor should be abolished immediately and those who argue that we must accommodate it.Less
This chapter explores the normative issues posed by child labor. The first section briefly considers the conceptual problems of defining who is a child for the purposes of identifying child labor. The second section explores several considerations that make child labor morally problematic, considerations that turn on all four of the parameters presented in chapter 4: weak agency, vulnerability, and extreme harm to the individual child and to society. Guided by these considerations, the author defends a position distinct from both those who argue that all child labor should be abolished immediately and those who argue that we must accommodate it.
