Mark J. Nieuwenhuijsen (ed.)
- Published in print:
- 2003
- Published Online:
- September 2009
- ISBN:
- 9780198528616
- eISBN:
- 9780191723933
- Item type:
- book
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780198528616.001.0001
- Subject:
- Public Health and Epidemiology, Public Health, Epidemiology
The recent and rapid expansion of occupational and environmental epidemiology and health risk assessment looks set to continue in line with growing public, government, and media concern about ...
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The recent and rapid expansion of occupational and environmental epidemiology and health risk assessment looks set to continue in line with growing public, government, and media concern about occupational and environmental health issues, and a scientific need to better understand and explain the effects of occupational and environmental pollutants on human health. Risks associated with occupational and environmental exposure are generally small, but the exposed population, and hence the population attributable risk, may be large. To detect small risks, the exposure assessment needs to be very refined. Exposure assessment is the study of the distribution and determinants of potentially hazardous agents, and includes the estimation of intensity, duration, and frequency of exposure, the variation in these indices and their determinants. Epidemiological studies can utilize information on variation and determinants of exposure to optimize the exposure-response relations. Many methodological and practical problems arise when conducting an exposure assessment for epidemiological studies and these are addressed in the book, as is the issue of measurement error and exposure misclassification and its effect on exposure response relationships. The book outlines the basic principles of exposure assessment, in both occupational and environmental epidemiology, since there are many similarities but also some interesting differences. It examines the current status and research questions in the exposure assessment of occupational and environmental epidemiological studies of allergens, particulate matter, chlorination disinfection by-products, agricultural pesticides, and radiofrequencies.Less
The recent and rapid expansion of occupational and environmental epidemiology and health risk assessment looks set to continue in line with growing public, government, and media concern about occupational and environmental health issues, and a scientific need to better understand and explain the effects of occupational and environmental pollutants on human health. Risks associated with occupational and environmental exposure are generally small, but the exposed population, and hence the population attributable risk, may be large. To detect small risks, the exposure assessment needs to be very refined. Exposure assessment is the study of the distribution and determinants of potentially hazardous agents, and includes the estimation of intensity, duration, and frequency of exposure, the variation in these indices and their determinants. Epidemiological studies can utilize information on variation and determinants of exposure to optimize the exposure-response relations. Many methodological and practical problems arise when conducting an exposure assessment for epidemiological studies and these are addressed in the book, as is the issue of measurement error and exposure misclassification and its effect on exposure response relationships. The book outlines the basic principles of exposure assessment, in both occupational and environmental epidemiology, since there are many similarities but also some interesting differences. It examines the current status and research questions in the exposure assessment of occupational and environmental epidemiological studies of allergens, particulate matter, chlorination disinfection by-products, agricultural pesticides, and radiofrequencies.
Daniel Strickman, Stephen P. Frances, and Mustapha Debboun
- Published in print:
- 2009
- Published Online:
- May 2009
- ISBN:
- 9780195365771
- eISBN:
- 9780199867677
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195365771.003.0012
- Subject:
- Biology, Natural History and Field Guides
Toxicology is a difficult scientific field that attempts to determine whether chemicals are harmful. There are many different ways that a chemical can cause harm, all influenced by the dosage and the ...
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Toxicology is a difficult scientific field that attempts to determine whether chemicals are harmful. There are many different ways that a chemical can cause harm, all influenced by the dosage and the route of exposure. This chapter gives a basic explanation for the public of how the toxicity, and therefore safety, of active ingredients is determined. Government regulation of repellent products provides considerable safety because groups of toxicologists give careful consideration to the amount of exposure and the potential for harm. Labels on products that limit the number of applications or restrict who can use a product are based on careful science.Less
Toxicology is a difficult scientific field that attempts to determine whether chemicals are harmful. There are many different ways that a chemical can cause harm, all influenced by the dosage and the route of exposure. This chapter gives a basic explanation for the public of how the toxicity, and therefore safety, of active ingredients is determined. Government regulation of repellent products provides considerable safety because groups of toxicologists give careful consideration to the amount of exposure and the potential for harm. Labels on products that limit the number of applications or restrict who can use a product are based on careful science.
Richard Firn
- Published in print:
- 2009
- Published Online:
- February 2010
- ISBN:
- 9780199566839
- eISBN:
- 9780191721700
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199566839.003.0006
- Subject:
- Biology, Ecology, Biochemistry / Molecular Biology
The organisms that make Natural Products have been producing tens of thousands of different chemicals, totalling billions of tonnes every year, for billions of years. Hence, organisms have evolved to ...
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The organisms that make Natural Products have been producing tens of thousands of different chemicals, totalling billions of tonnes every year, for billions of years. Hence, organisms have evolved to survive, indeed thrive, in the presence of these chemicals. The mechanisms evolved by organisms to cope with their chemical load are likely to be the same mechanisms used by organisms, including humans, to cope with new chemicals introduced into use by humans. This chapter shows how the subjects of toxicology and ecotoxicology can usefully be informed by the knowledge of NPs.Less
The organisms that make Natural Products have been producing tens of thousands of different chemicals, totalling billions of tonnes every year, for billions of years. Hence, organisms have evolved to survive, indeed thrive, in the presence of these chemicals. The mechanisms evolved by organisms to cope with their chemical load are likely to be the same mechanisms used by organisms, including humans, to cope with new chemicals introduced into use by humans. This chapter shows how the subjects of toxicology and ecotoxicology can usefully be informed by the knowledge of NPs.
Kevin Elliott
- Published in print:
- 2011
- Published Online:
- January 2011
- ISBN:
- 9780199755622
- eISBN:
- 9780199827121
- Item type:
- book
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199755622.001.0001
- Subject:
- Philosophy, Philosophy of Science
This book examines a variety of ways in which societal values can be more effectively integrated into the numerous judgments associated with policy‐relevant environmental research. It provides a ...
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This book examines a variety of ways in which societal values can be more effectively integrated into the numerous judgments associated with policy‐relevant environmental research. It provides a detailed analysis of contemporary research on the hypothesis of hormesis (i.e., beneficial biological effects caused by low‐dose exposure to pollutants that are ordinarily toxic). On the basis of this analysis, as well as shorter case studies of endocrine disruption and multiple chemical sensitivity, the book proposes three lessons. First, university conflict‐of‐interest policies are significantly limited in their ability to prevent interest groups from “hijacking” academic research on sensitive policy‐relevant topics. Therefore, alternative strategies are needed to preserve science that serves the public interest. Second, concerned citizens and policy makers need to more carefully determine the most appropriate forms of broadly based deliberation to be employed in response to specific areas of sensitive, policy‐relevant research. Third, the principle of informed consent, which currently provides guidance in the medical field, suggests a promising ethical framework that can help environmental scientists who disseminate debated findings to the public. Throughout, the book highlights many of the crucial ethical and societal questions surrounding research on the hormesis hypothesis. It thereby constitutes the first book‐length manuscript to provide guidance to the concerned citizens, industry groups, scientists, and policy makers who are exploring ways to respond to this phenomenon.Less
This book examines a variety of ways in which societal values can be more effectively integrated into the numerous judgments associated with policy‐relevant environmental research. It provides a detailed analysis of contemporary research on the hypothesis of hormesis (i.e., beneficial biological effects caused by low‐dose exposure to pollutants that are ordinarily toxic). On the basis of this analysis, as well as shorter case studies of endocrine disruption and multiple chemical sensitivity, the book proposes three lessons. First, university conflict‐of‐interest policies are significantly limited in their ability to prevent interest groups from “hijacking” academic research on sensitive policy‐relevant topics. Therefore, alternative strategies are needed to preserve science that serves the public interest. Second, concerned citizens and policy makers need to more carefully determine the most appropriate forms of broadly based deliberation to be employed in response to specific areas of sensitive, policy‐relevant research. Third, the principle of informed consent, which currently provides guidance in the medical field, suggests a promising ethical framework that can help environmental scientists who disseminate debated findings to the public. Throughout, the book highlights many of the crucial ethical and societal questions surrounding research on the hormesis hypothesis. It thereby constitutes the first book‐length manuscript to provide guidance to the concerned citizens, industry groups, scientists, and policy makers who are exploring ways to respond to this phenomenon.
Kevin C. Elliott
- Published in print:
- 2011
- Published Online:
- January 2011
- ISBN:
- 9780199755622
- eISBN:
- 9780199827121
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199755622.003.0001
- Subject:
- Philosophy, Philosophy of Science
This chapter provides an overview of the book and a summary of each subsequent chapter. It highlights the volume's two major goals: to examine the range of methodological decisions and interpretive ...
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This chapter provides an overview of the book and a summary of each subsequent chapter. It highlights the volume's two major goals: to examine the range of methodological decisions and interpretive judgments that permeate policy‐relevant scientific research and to explore ways of making these choices more responsive to a range of public values (in addition to those of deep pockets, which have abundant resources to spend on research). It also introduces readers to the book's central case study, hormesis, which involves seemingly beneficial effects produced by low doses of substances that are normally toxic. Chapters 2 and 3 perform two preliminary tasks: (1) They clarify the major categories of value judgments that contribute to differing evaluations of the generalizability and regulatory implications of hormesis; and (2) they argue that societal values should not be completely excluded from influencing any of these categories of judgments. Chapters 4 through 6 develop the book's three primary lessons, corresponding to the three “bodies” that Sheila Jasanoff emphasizes as central to obtaining trustworthy public‐policy guidance from scientific experts. These lessons concern how to safeguard the body of scientific knowledge from interest groups, how to ascertain the best advisory bodies for guiding policy makers and directing the course of future research, and how to provide the bodies of experts themselves with an ethics of expertise. Chapter 7 argues that the lessons drawn in chapters 2 through 6 are applicable not only to the hormesis case but also to other areas of policy‐relevant research, such as endocrine disruption and multiple chemical sensitivity (MCS).Less
This chapter provides an overview of the book and a summary of each subsequent chapter. It highlights the volume's two major goals: to examine the range of methodological decisions and interpretive judgments that permeate policy‐relevant scientific research and to explore ways of making these choices more responsive to a range of public values (in addition to those of deep pockets, which have abundant resources to spend on research). It also introduces readers to the book's central case study, hormesis, which involves seemingly beneficial effects produced by low doses of substances that are normally toxic. Chapters 2 and 3 perform two preliminary tasks: (1) They clarify the major categories of value judgments that contribute to differing evaluations of the generalizability and regulatory implications of hormesis; and (2) they argue that societal values should not be completely excluded from influencing any of these categories of judgments. Chapters 4 through 6 develop the book's three primary lessons, corresponding to the three “bodies” that Sheila Jasanoff emphasizes as central to obtaining trustworthy public‐policy guidance from scientific experts. These lessons concern how to safeguard the body of scientific knowledge from interest groups, how to ascertain the best advisory bodies for guiding policy makers and directing the course of future research, and how to provide the bodies of experts themselves with an ethics of expertise. Chapter 7 argues that the lessons drawn in chapters 2 through 6 are applicable not only to the hormesis case but also to other areas of policy‐relevant research, such as endocrine disruption and multiple chemical sensitivity (MCS).
Kevin C. Elliott
- Published in print:
- 2011
- Published Online:
- January 2011
- ISBN:
- 9780199755622
- eISBN:
- 9780199827121
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199755622.003.0002
- Subject:
- Philosophy, Philosophy of Science
This chapter examines the history of hormesis research as an important case study of the ways in which methodological and interpretive judgments enter scientific practice. It organizes these choices ...
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This chapter examines the history of hormesis research as an important case study of the ways in which methodological and interpretive judgments enter scientific practice. It organizes these choices into four major categories. First, judgments pervade the choice of research projects and the design of studies. One of the important questions in this regard is what kinds of studies to prioritize, given the limited funding available to examine the low‐dose effects of toxicants. Second, crucial decisions are involved in developing scientific language. The hormesis case study (as well as the multiple chemical sensitivity and endocrine disruption cases examined in Chapter 7) provides vivid examples of how the choice of scientific terms and categories can subtly influence policy discussions. Third, judgments play a crucial role in the interpretation and evaluation of studies. This third category of methodological choices is especially important to understand in the hormesis case, because it is largely responsible for the disagreements between proponents and opponents of claims about the generalizability and regulatory implications of hormesis. Fourth, there are important decisions to make about how to apply research results in the context of formulating public policy. For example, efforts to apply hormesis to regulatory policy must come to grips with difficult questions about how to balance potentially beneficial and harmful effects of toxic chemicals.Less
This chapter examines the history of hormesis research as an important case study of the ways in which methodological and interpretive judgments enter scientific practice. It organizes these choices into four major categories. First, judgments pervade the choice of research projects and the design of studies. One of the important questions in this regard is what kinds of studies to prioritize, given the limited funding available to examine the low‐dose effects of toxicants. Second, crucial decisions are involved in developing scientific language. The hormesis case study (as well as the multiple chemical sensitivity and endocrine disruption cases examined in Chapter 7) provides vivid examples of how the choice of scientific terms and categories can subtly influence policy discussions. Third, judgments play a crucial role in the interpretation and evaluation of studies. This third category of methodological choices is especially important to understand in the hormesis case, because it is largely responsible for the disagreements between proponents and opponents of claims about the generalizability and regulatory implications of hormesis. Fourth, there are important decisions to make about how to apply research results in the context of formulating public policy. For example, efforts to apply hormesis to regulatory policy must come to grips with difficult questions about how to balance potentially beneficial and harmful effects of toxic chemicals.
Kevin C. Elliott
- Published in print:
- 2011
- Published Online:
- January 2011
- ISBN:
- 9780199755622
- eISBN:
- 9780199827121
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199755622.003.0008
- Subject:
- Philosophy, Philosophy of Science
This final chapter reviews the book's major claims and considers important directions for future scholarship. The analyses in the preceding chapters suggest at least three promising avenues for ...
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This final chapter reviews the book's major claims and considers important directions for future scholarship. The analyses in the preceding chapters suggest at least three promising avenues for future work: (1) further philosophical studies of the roles that various sorts of values should play in scientific research; (2) new scientific investigations of the biological effects of toxicants at low doses; and (3) ongoing social‐scientific research on how to incorporate a representative range of societal values in science. Regarding the role of values in science, leading philosophers of science disagree both about the extent to which scientific theory choice is underdetermined by epistemic values and about the conditions under which nonepistemic values should be employed in resolving this underdetermination. Related questions include whether the conceptual distinction between epistemic and nonepistemic values holds up to critical scrutiny and whether it is possible to draw a convincing distinction between practical decisions about how to act and epistemic judgments about what to believe. Regarding new scientific investigations, it is probably more important in the near future for scientific research to focus on hazards like endocrine disruption and toxic‐chemical mixtures than on hormesis, especially because sensitive populations like children are probably already exposed to mixtures of toxicants at levels above the hormetic dose range. Nevertheless, hormesis research may still be valuable in some fields, such as pharmaceutical development. Finally, with respect to social‐science research, it would be helpful to develop new strategies for addressing conflicts of interest, new research on the sorts of deliberative mechanisms that are effective in particular contexts, and further studies on how to effectively disseminate scientific information to its recipients.Less
This final chapter reviews the book's major claims and considers important directions for future scholarship. The analyses in the preceding chapters suggest at least three promising avenues for future work: (1) further philosophical studies of the roles that various sorts of values should play in scientific research; (2) new scientific investigations of the biological effects of toxicants at low doses; and (3) ongoing social‐scientific research on how to incorporate a representative range of societal values in science. Regarding the role of values in science, leading philosophers of science disagree both about the extent to which scientific theory choice is underdetermined by epistemic values and about the conditions under which nonepistemic values should be employed in resolving this underdetermination. Related questions include whether the conceptual distinction between epistemic and nonepistemic values holds up to critical scrutiny and whether it is possible to draw a convincing distinction between practical decisions about how to act and epistemic judgments about what to believe. Regarding new scientific investigations, it is probably more important in the near future for scientific research to focus on hazards like endocrine disruption and toxic‐chemical mixtures than on hormesis, especially because sensitive populations like children are probably already exposed to mixtures of toxicants at levels above the hormetic dose range. Nevertheless, hormesis research may still be valuable in some fields, such as pharmaceutical development. Finally, with respect to social‐science research, it would be helpful to develop new strategies for addressing conflicts of interest, new research on the sorts of deliberative mechanisms that are effective in particular contexts, and further studies on how to effectively disseminate scientific information to its recipients.
Arnas Palaima (ed.)
- Published in print:
- 2012
- Published Online:
- January 2013
- ISBN:
- 9780520274297
- eISBN:
- 9780520954014
- Item type:
- book
- Publisher:
- University of California Press
- DOI:
- 10.1525/california/9780520274297.001.0001
- Subject:
- Biology, Ecology
The San Francisco Bay, the biggest estuary on the west coast of North America, was once surrounded by an almost unbroken chain of tidal wetlands, a fecund sieve of ecosystems connecting the land and ...
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The San Francisco Bay, the biggest estuary on the west coast of North America, was once surrounded by an almost unbroken chain of tidal wetlands, a fecund sieve of ecosystems connecting the land and the Bay. Today, most of these wetlands have disappeared under the demands of coastal development, and those that remain cling precariously to a drastically altered coastline. This volume is a collaborative effort of nearly 40 scholars in which the wealth of scientific knowledge available on tidal wetlands of the San Francisco Estuary is summarized and integrated. This book addresses issues of taxonomy, geomorphology, toxicology, the impact of climate change, ecosystem services, public policy, and conservation, and it is an essential resource for ecologists, environmental scientists, coastal policymakers, and researchers interested in estuaries and conserving and restoring coastal wetlands around the world.Less
The San Francisco Bay, the biggest estuary on the west coast of North America, was once surrounded by an almost unbroken chain of tidal wetlands, a fecund sieve of ecosystems connecting the land and the Bay. Today, most of these wetlands have disappeared under the demands of coastal development, and those that remain cling precariously to a drastically altered coastline. This volume is a collaborative effort of nearly 40 scholars in which the wealth of scientific knowledge available on tidal wetlands of the San Francisco Estuary is summarized and integrated. This book addresses issues of taxonomy, geomorphology, toxicology, the impact of climate change, ecosystem services, public policy, and conservation, and it is an essential resource for ecologists, environmental scientists, coastal policymakers, and researchers interested in estuaries and conserving and restoring coastal wetlands around the world.
Sara Shostak
- Published in print:
- 2013
- Published Online:
- January 2017
- ISBN:
- 9780520275171
- eISBN:
- 9780520955240
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- University of California Press
- DOI:
- 10.1525/california/9780520275171.003.0002
- Subject:
- Public Health and Epidemiology, Public Health
Chapter 1 provides a map of key environmental health research and regulatory institutions, including the National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences (NIEHS), the National Toxicology Program ...
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Chapter 1 provides a map of key environmental health research and regulatory institutions, including the National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences (NIEHS), the National Toxicology Program (NTP), and the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). It also considers the goals and perspectives of the chemical industry and of environmental health and justice activists.Focusing, then, on the contentious politics of the environmental health arena, it explores how the practices of environmental health scientists have been shaped by the forces and struggles in the field in which they operateLess
Chapter 1 provides a map of key environmental health research and regulatory institutions, including the National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences (NIEHS), the National Toxicology Program (NTP), and the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). It also considers the goals and perspectives of the chemical industry and of environmental health and justice activists.Focusing, then, on the contentious politics of the environmental health arena, it explores how the practices of environmental health scientists have been shaped by the forces and struggles in the field in which they operate
Annalee Yassi, Tord Kjellström, Theo de Kok, and Tee Guidotti
- Published in print:
- 2001
- Published Online:
- September 2009
- ISBN:
- 9780195135589
- eISBN:
- 9780199864102
- Item type:
- book
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195135589.001.0001
- Subject:
- Public Health and Epidemiology, Public Health, Epidemiology
This book draws from the social sciences, the natural sciences, and the health sciences to introduce the principles and methods applied in environmental health. It presents an overview of the basic ...
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This book draws from the social sciences, the natural sciences, and the health sciences to introduce the principles and methods applied in environmental health. It presents an overview of the basic sciences needed to understand environmental health hazards, including toxicology, microbiology, health physics, injury analysis, and relevant psychosocial concepts. It also presents a basic approach to risk assessment and risk management. The first part of the book concentrates on broad issues, providing frameworks for the investigation and management of environmental health problems. The middle section deepens the discussion of routes of exposure (air quality, water and sanitation, food and agricultural issues). The final section addresses environmental health from sustainable development themes (settlements and urbanization, energy, industry, and global concerns). The final chapter focuses on ethical issues and action planning.Less
This book draws from the social sciences, the natural sciences, and the health sciences to introduce the principles and methods applied in environmental health. It presents an overview of the basic sciences needed to understand environmental health hazards, including toxicology, microbiology, health physics, injury analysis, and relevant psychosocial concepts. It also presents a basic approach to risk assessment and risk management. The first part of the book concentrates on broad issues, providing frameworks for the investigation and management of environmental health problems. The middle section deepens the discussion of routes of exposure (air quality, water and sanitation, food and agricultural issues). The final section addresses environmental health from sustainable development themes (settlements and urbanization, energy, industry, and global concerns). The final chapter focuses on ethical issues and action planning.
Kai M. Savolainen and Pentti Kalliokoski
- Published in print:
- 2011
- Published Online:
- May 2011
- ISBN:
- 9780195380002
- eISBN:
- 9780199893881
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195380002.003.0002
- Subject:
- Public Health and Epidemiology, Public Health
Chemical safety is the general term for managing the hazards and risk associated with particular chemicals, both to protect workers and residents in the community. Hazards associated with chemicals ...
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Chemical safety is the general term for managing the hazards and risk associated with particular chemicals, both to protect workers and residents in the community. Hazards associated with chemicals may include poisoning, irritation, chemical burns, foul odour, allergies, explosion, fire and combustion products, release of heat or induction of cold. A particular problem with chemical safety occurs when workers enter confined spaces, places that are enclosed such air does not circulate freely and gases or vapours can collect at high concentrations and cause poisoning. Toxicology is the science that studies how chemicals are handled in the body and how they affect the body in causing injury or illness.Less
Chemical safety is the general term for managing the hazards and risk associated with particular chemicals, both to protect workers and residents in the community. Hazards associated with chemicals may include poisoning, irritation, chemical burns, foul odour, allergies, explosion, fire and combustion products, release of heat or induction of cold. A particular problem with chemical safety occurs when workers enter confined spaces, places that are enclosed such air does not circulate freely and gases or vapours can collect at high concentrations and cause poisoning. Toxicology is the science that studies how chemicals are handled in the body and how they affect the body in causing injury or illness.
Barry S. Levy, David H. Wegman, Sherry L. Baron, and Rosemary K. Sokas (eds)
- Published in print:
- 2017
- Published Online:
- November 2017
- ISBN:
- 9780190662677
- eISBN:
- 9780190662707
- Item type:
- book
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/oso/9780190662677.001.0001
- Subject:
- Public Health and Epidemiology, Public Health
This thoroughly updated seventh edition is a comprehensive, clearly written, and practical textbook that includes information on both occupational health and environmental health, providing the ...
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This thoroughly updated seventh edition is a comprehensive, clearly written, and practical textbook that includes information on both occupational health and environmental health, providing the necessary foundation for recognizing and preventing work-related and environmentally induced diseases and injuries. National and international experts share their knowledge and practical experience in addressing a wide range of issues and evolving challenges in their fields. A multidisciplinary approach makes this an ideal textbook for students and practitioners in public health, occupational and environmental medicine, occupational health nursing, epidemiology, toxicology, occupational and environmental hygiene, safety, ergonomics, environmental sciences, and other fields. Comprehensive coverage provides a clear understanding of occupational and environmental health and its relationships to public health, environmental sciences, and government policy. Practical case studies demonstrate how to apply the basic principles of occupational and environmental health to real-world challenges. Numerous tables, graphs, and photographs reinforce key concepts. Annotated Further Reading sections at the end of chapters provide avenues for obtaining further infomation. This new edition of the book is thoroughly updated and also contains new chapters on climate change, children’s environmental health, liver disorders, kidney disorders, and a global perspective on occupational health and safety.Less
This thoroughly updated seventh edition is a comprehensive, clearly written, and practical textbook that includes information on both occupational health and environmental health, providing the necessary foundation for recognizing and preventing work-related and environmentally induced diseases and injuries. National and international experts share their knowledge and practical experience in addressing a wide range of issues and evolving challenges in their fields. A multidisciplinary approach makes this an ideal textbook for students and practitioners in public health, occupational and environmental medicine, occupational health nursing, epidemiology, toxicology, occupational and environmental hygiene, safety, ergonomics, environmental sciences, and other fields. Comprehensive coverage provides a clear understanding of occupational and environmental health and its relationships to public health, environmental sciences, and government policy. Practical case studies demonstrate how to apply the basic principles of occupational and environmental health to real-world challenges. Numerous tables, graphs, and photographs reinforce key concepts. Annotated Further Reading sections at the end of chapters provide avenues for obtaining further infomation. This new edition of the book is thoroughly updated and also contains new chapters on climate change, children’s environmental health, liver disorders, kidney disorders, and a global perspective on occupational health and safety.
Ken Geiser
- Published in print:
- 2015
- Published Online:
- January 2016
- ISBN:
- 9780262012522
- eISBN:
- 9780262327015
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- The MIT Press
- DOI:
- 10.7551/mitpress/9780262012522.003.0011
- Subject:
- Environmental Science, Environmental Studies
Several types of chemical information are needed including information on inherent chemical characteristics, chemical production and use, chemical release and exposure, and alternatives to hazardous ...
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Several types of chemical information are needed including information on inherent chemical characteristics, chemical production and use, chemical release and exposure, and alternatives to hazardous chemicals. The Environmental Protection Agency and other government agencies and private services have developed many tools, models and estimation techniques for generating the needed data. New advances in computational toxicology can now provide “automated high-throughput” estimates of various chemical characteristics without the slow and costly chemical testing of the past. There are also significant efforts to improve chemical information transfer within supply chains and increase chemical information disclosure to the public.Less
Several types of chemical information are needed including information on inherent chemical characteristics, chemical production and use, chemical release and exposure, and alternatives to hazardous chemicals. The Environmental Protection Agency and other government agencies and private services have developed many tools, models and estimation techniques for generating the needed data. New advances in computational toxicology can now provide “automated high-throughput” estimates of various chemical characteristics without the slow and costly chemical testing of the past. There are also significant efforts to improve chemical information transfer within supply chains and increase chemical information disclosure to the public.
Kevin C. Elliott and Ted Richards (eds)
- Published in print:
- 2017
- Published Online:
- June 2017
- ISBN:
- 9780190467715
- eISBN:
- 9780190467753
- Item type:
- book
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780190467715.001.0001
- Subject:
- Philosophy, Philosophy of Science
According to the argument from inductive risk, scientists have responsibilities to consider the consequences of error when they set evidential standards for making decisions such as accepting or ...
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According to the argument from inductive risk, scientists have responsibilities to consider the consequences of error when they set evidential standards for making decisions such as accepting or rejecting hypotheses. This argument has received a great deal of scholarly attention in recent years. Exploring Inductive Risk brings together a set of concrete case studies with the goals of illustrating the pervasiveness of inductive risk, assisting scientists and policymakers in responding to it, and moving theoretical discussions of this phenomenon forward. The book contains eleven case studies ranging over a wide range of scientific contexts and fields: the drug approval process, high energy particle physics, dual-use research, climate science, research on gender disparities, clinical trials, and toxicology. The chapters are divided into four parts: (1) weighing inductive risk; (2) evading inductive risk; (3) the breadth of inductive risk; and (4) exploring the limits of inductive risk. It includes an introduction that provides a historical overview of the argument from inductive risk and a conclusion that highlights three major topic areas that merit future research. These include the nature of inductive risk and the argument from inductive risk (AIR), the extent to which the AIR can be evaded by defenders of the value-free ideal, and the strategies that the scientific community can employ to handle inductive risk in a responsible fashion.Less
According to the argument from inductive risk, scientists have responsibilities to consider the consequences of error when they set evidential standards for making decisions such as accepting or rejecting hypotheses. This argument has received a great deal of scholarly attention in recent years. Exploring Inductive Risk brings together a set of concrete case studies with the goals of illustrating the pervasiveness of inductive risk, assisting scientists and policymakers in responding to it, and moving theoretical discussions of this phenomenon forward. The book contains eleven case studies ranging over a wide range of scientific contexts and fields: the drug approval process, high energy particle physics, dual-use research, climate science, research on gender disparities, clinical trials, and toxicology. The chapters are divided into four parts: (1) weighing inductive risk; (2) evading inductive risk; (3) the breadth of inductive risk; and (4) exploring the limits of inductive risk. It includes an introduction that provides a historical overview of the argument from inductive risk and a conclusion that highlights three major topic areas that merit future research. These include the nature of inductive risk and the argument from inductive risk (AIR), the extent to which the AIR can be evaded by defenders of the value-free ideal, and the strategies that the scientific community can employ to handle inductive risk in a responsible fashion.
Frederick Rowe Davis
- Published in print:
- 2014
- Published Online:
- May 2015
- ISBN:
- 9780300205176
- eISBN:
- 9780300210378
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Yale University Press
- DOI:
- 10.12987/yale/9780300205176.003.0003
- Subject:
- Environmental Science, Nature
This chapter examines the role of the University of Chicago Toxicity Laboratory in the development of toxicology and in scientific efforts to support defence during World War II. The Toxicity ...
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This chapter examines the role of the University of Chicago Toxicity Laboratory in the development of toxicology and in scientific efforts to support defence during World War II. The Toxicity Laboratory was one of the first institutions devoted entirely to toxicological research. Some research topics pursued there provide important links in such areas as the joint toxicity and resistance to antimalarial drugs. E. M. K. Geiling directed several programs on behalf of the war through the Toxicity Laboratory. In addition to studying antimalarial drug therapies, scientists at the Toxicity Laboratory devoted considerable effort to the analysis of nitrogen mustards. In general, Geiling and the growing group of scientists at the Tox Lab carried out a broad range of studies with implications for pharmacology and for toxicology as a distinct discipline.Less
This chapter examines the role of the University of Chicago Toxicity Laboratory in the development of toxicology and in scientific efforts to support defence during World War II. The Toxicity Laboratory was one of the first institutions devoted entirely to toxicological research. Some research topics pursued there provide important links in such areas as the joint toxicity and resistance to antimalarial drugs. E. M. K. Geiling directed several programs on behalf of the war through the Toxicity Laboratory. In addition to studying antimalarial drug therapies, scientists at the Toxicity Laboratory devoted considerable effort to the analysis of nitrogen mustards. In general, Geiling and the growing group of scientists at the Tox Lab carried out a broad range of studies with implications for pharmacology and for toxicology as a distinct discipline.
Frederick Rowe Davis
- Published in print:
- 2014
- Published Online:
- May 2015
- ISBN:
- 9780300205176
- eISBN:
- 9780300210378
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Yale University Press
- DOI:
- 10.12987/yale/9780300205176.003.0008
- Subject:
- Environmental Science, Nature
This chapter highlights lessons learned from a hundred years of risk assessment from pesticides. As the scale of agriculture developed to industrial proportions, farmers increasingly relied on ...
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This chapter highlights lessons learned from a hundred years of risk assessment from pesticides. As the scale of agriculture developed to industrial proportions, farmers increasingly relied on chemical inputs, specifically insecticides, to control crop damage as a result of insect infestations. The methods developed by E. M. K. Geiling and FDA scientists revealed the value of toxicology in characterizing risks of chemicals in the marketplace. Meanwhile, the book Silent Spring highlighted the tragic irony of legislation and pesticide use. While organophosphates posed a significant risk to humans and wildlife, most remained in the market until the EPA completed its comprehensive review in 2006. To this day, organophosphates are still among the most widely used pesticides in the world, with tragic consequences for farm workers, children, and wildlife populations.Less
This chapter highlights lessons learned from a hundred years of risk assessment from pesticides. As the scale of agriculture developed to industrial proportions, farmers increasingly relied on chemical inputs, specifically insecticides, to control crop damage as a result of insect infestations. The methods developed by E. M. K. Geiling and FDA scientists revealed the value of toxicology in characterizing risks of chemicals in the marketplace. Meanwhile, the book Silent Spring highlighted the tragic irony of legislation and pesticide use. While organophosphates posed a significant risk to humans and wildlife, most remained in the market until the EPA completed its comprehensive review in 2006. To this day, organophosphates are still among the most widely used pesticides in the world, with tragic consequences for farm workers, children, and wildlife populations.
Sara Shostak
- Published in print:
- 2013
- Published Online:
- January 2017
- ISBN:
- 9780520275171
- eISBN:
- 9780520955240
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- University of California Press
- DOI:
- 10.1525/california/9780520275171.003.0003
- Subject:
- Public Health and Epidemiology, Public Health
Chapter 2 examines how scientists have used the ongoing conflicts, challenges, values, and narratives embedded in the contentious politics of environmental health to articulate the persistent ...
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Chapter 2 examines how scientists have used the ongoing conflicts, challenges, values, and narratives embedded in the contentious politics of environmental health to articulate the persistent challenges facing their field. It defines the concept of a “consensus critique”—an effort to bring stakeholders together around a set of shared concerns that transcend their substantive political, economic, and/or social differences. In this case, the consensus critique points to technical challenges and procedural limitations extant in toxicology testing, the environmental health risk assessment and regulation that diverse stakeholders tend to agree are problematic, even as they disagree vehemently about substantive and political matters, such as specific regulations.Less
Chapter 2 examines how scientists have used the ongoing conflicts, challenges, values, and narratives embedded in the contentious politics of environmental health to articulate the persistent challenges facing their field. It defines the concept of a “consensus critique”—an effort to bring stakeholders together around a set of shared concerns that transcend their substantive political, economic, and/or social differences. In this case, the consensus critique points to technical challenges and procedural limitations extant in toxicology testing, the environmental health risk assessment and regulation that diverse stakeholders tend to agree are problematic, even as they disagree vehemently about substantive and political matters, such as specific regulations.
Robert Laumbach and Michael Gochfeld
- Published in print:
- 2017
- Published Online:
- November 2017
- ISBN:
- 9780190662677
- eISBN:
- 9780190662707
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/oso/9780190662677.003.0007
- Subject:
- Public Health and Epidemiology, Public Health
This chapter describes the basic principles of toxicology and their application to occupational and environmental health. Topics covered include pathways that toxic substances may take from sources ...
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This chapter describes the basic principles of toxicology and their application to occupational and environmental health. Topics covered include pathways that toxic substances may take from sources in the environment to molecular targets in the cells of the body where toxic effects occur. These pathways include routes of exposure, absorption into the body, distribution to organs and tissues, metabolism, storage, and excretion. The various types of toxicological endpoints are discussed, along with the concepts of dose-response relationships, threshold doses, and the basis of interindividual differences and interspecies differences in response to exposure to toxic substances. The diversity of cellular and molecular mechanisms of toxicity, including enzyme induction and inhibition, oxidative stress, mutagenesis, carcinogenesis, and teratogenesis, are discussed and the chapter concludes with examples of practical applications in clinical evaluation and in toxicity testing.Less
This chapter describes the basic principles of toxicology and their application to occupational and environmental health. Topics covered include pathways that toxic substances may take from sources in the environment to molecular targets in the cells of the body where toxic effects occur. These pathways include routes of exposure, absorption into the body, distribution to organs and tissues, metabolism, storage, and excretion. The various types of toxicological endpoints are discussed, along with the concepts of dose-response relationships, threshold doses, and the basis of interindividual differences and interspecies differences in response to exposure to toxic substances. The diversity of cellular and molecular mechanisms of toxicity, including enzyme induction and inhibition, oxidative stress, mutagenesis, carcinogenesis, and teratogenesis, are discussed and the chapter concludes with examples of practical applications in clinical evaluation and in toxicity testing.
Susanna Rankin Bohme
- Published in print:
- 2014
- Published Online:
- September 2016
- ISBN:
- 9780520278981
- eISBN:
- 9780520959811
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- University of California Press
- DOI:
- 10.1525/california/9780520278981.003.0002
- Subject:
- History, Latin American History
From the early 1950s through early 1960s, Dow and Shell marketed DBCP before toxicological testing was complete. Marketing techniques used the language of science to teach farmers about DBCP’s ...
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From the early 1950s through early 1960s, Dow and Shell marketed DBCP before toxicological testing was complete. Marketing techniques used the language of science to teach farmers about DBCP’s then-unfamiliar target pests—near-microscopic, wormlike nematodes—and said DBCP-based products would boost profits by controlling them. Confidence in new pesticides was not unbounded, as many worried about the harm to human health. Toxicology and government regulation seemed to resolve the tension between pesticides’ benefits and risks. In the case of DBCP, however, animal testing had alarming results, notably, reproductive problems in males. Companies and regulators together downplayed these results in favor of an interpretation of DBCP as “safe for human use.” Production and use of DCBP continued with few protections for those exposed.Less
From the early 1950s through early 1960s, Dow and Shell marketed DBCP before toxicological testing was complete. Marketing techniques used the language of science to teach farmers about DBCP’s then-unfamiliar target pests—near-microscopic, wormlike nematodes—and said DBCP-based products would boost profits by controlling them. Confidence in new pesticides was not unbounded, as many worried about the harm to human health. Toxicology and government regulation seemed to resolve the tension between pesticides’ benefits and risks. In the case of DBCP, however, animal testing had alarming results, notably, reproductive problems in males. Companies and regulators together downplayed these results in favor of an interpretation of DBCP as “safe for human use.” Production and use of DCBP continued with few protections for those exposed.
Tee L. Guidotti
- Published in print:
- 2015
- Published Online:
- April 2015
- ISBN:
- 9780199325337
- eISBN:
- 9780190238803
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199325337.003.0005
- Subject:
- Public Health and Epidemiology, Epidemiology
“Pollution” implies that harm has already been done and that human action is the cause. “Contamination” can also relate to contaminants arising from natural sources. Any chemical foreign to the body ...
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“Pollution” implies that harm has already been done and that human action is the cause. “Contamination” can also relate to contaminants arising from natural sources. Any chemical foreign to the body (including pollutants and other contaminants, drugs, and nutrients) is called a “xenobiotic” in toxicology. “Persistent organic pollutants” (POPs) have physical and chemical properties that cause them to persist in the environment and bioaccumulate. The evaluation of the movement and behavior of chemical pollutants in the environment and their effects is called “ecotoxicology.” The same principles apply to ecotoxicology as to the behavior of chemicals in the human body or animals. Human and animal toxicology can be divided into two parts: Toxicokinetics deals with the absorption, distribution, metabolism, and excretion of xenobiotics and the associated rates of elimination. Toxicodynamics deals with the effects on the body and mechanisms of action. The essential relationship in toxicodynamics is the principle of “exposure-response relationship.”Less
“Pollution” implies that harm has already been done and that human action is the cause. “Contamination” can also relate to contaminants arising from natural sources. Any chemical foreign to the body (including pollutants and other contaminants, drugs, and nutrients) is called a “xenobiotic” in toxicology. “Persistent organic pollutants” (POPs) have physical and chemical properties that cause them to persist in the environment and bioaccumulate. The evaluation of the movement and behavior of chemical pollutants in the environment and their effects is called “ecotoxicology.” The same principles apply to ecotoxicology as to the behavior of chemicals in the human body or animals. Human and animal toxicology can be divided into two parts: Toxicokinetics deals with the absorption, distribution, metabolism, and excretion of xenobiotics and the associated rates of elimination. Toxicodynamics deals with the effects on the body and mechanisms of action. The essential relationship in toxicodynamics is the principle of “exposure-response relationship.”
