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Einstein's Principle-theory Approach

Harvey R. Brown

in Physical Relativity: Space-time structure from a dynamical perspective

This chapter focuses on how Einstein arrived at his special theory of relativity. It discusses Einstein's postulates, his derivation of the Lorentz transformations, and experimental evidence for the ... More

This chapter focuses on how Einstein arrived at his special theory of relativity. It discusses Einstein's postulates, his derivation of the Lorentz transformations, and experimental evidence for the Lorentz transformations. The chapter then addresses the question of whether Einstein's inertial frames are the same as Newton's.Less

“World Building”: Structuralism and Transcendental Idealism in Eddington

Thomas Ryckman

in The Reign of Relativity: Philosophy in Physics 1915-1925

It is shown how the epistemological thesis that physics can provide knowledge only of the structure of the physical world emerged in Arthur Eddington’s semi-popular, philosophical and technical ... More

It is shown how the epistemological thesis that physics can provide knowledge only of the structure of the physical world emerged in Arthur Eddington’s semi-popular, philosophical and technical writings on the general theory of relativity. The implicitly Kantian character of Eddington’s conception of “world building” in a geometrized physics is developed through examination of Eddington’s two principal works on general relativity. Eddington’s structuralism is contrasted with that associated with Bertrand Russell, and his conception of the mind’s role in “world building” is linked to earlier views of the mathematician William Kingdom Clifford.Less

It stands alone

Louis A. Girifalco

in The Universal Force: Gravity - Creator of Worlds

The theory of relativity is unique and is based on very simple ideas. In fact, it has only one fundamental premise and one physical fact. The premise is that the laws of physics must be the same ... More

The theory of relativity is unique and is based on very simple ideas. In fact, it has only one fundamental premise and one physical fact. The premise is that the laws of physics must be the same everywhere. It does not matter where we are or how we are moving, the laws must be the same. This is just an article of faith in the unity of nature. The physical fact is that the speed of light in a vacuum is the same no matter what. If the light source is stationary, or moving towards us, or moving away from us, we always measure the same speed. This is counterintuitive, but experiment shows it to be true and it must be accepted. Relativity then follows by inexorable logic. This minimalist foundation is part of the beauty of relativity. The structure of the theory is also so beautiful that it compels belief.Less

The Special Theory of Relativity and the Unreality of the Future

Michael Tooley

in Time, Tense, and Causation

According to the Special Theory of Relativity, there is no such thing as absolute simultaneity, contrary to the view defended in the book. However, this chapter demonstrates that the Special Theory ... More

According to the Special Theory of Relativity, there is no such thing as absolute simultaneity, contrary to the view defended in the book. However, this chapter demonstrates that the Special Theory of Relativity can be modified so as to allow absolute simultaneity. This modification involves reference to absolute space and the causal relations between space‐time points, and drops the assumption that the one‐way speed of light is constant through all frames of reference. Contrary to the orthodox theory, the modified version has the additional advantage of avoiding a clash with quantum mechanics, such as brought out by the Einstein‐Podolsky‐Rosen thought experiment and Bell's Theorem.Less

1921: “Critical or Empiricist Interpretation of the New Physics?”

Thomas Ryckman

in The Reign of Relativity: Philosophy in Physics 1915-1925

Mortiz Schlick’s article of this title was highly influential in convincing several generations of philosophers that GTR outrightly falsified any variety of Kantian epistemology. In fact, the ... More

Mortiz Schlick’s article of this title was highly influential in convincing several generations of philosophers that GTR outrightly falsified any variety of Kantian epistemology. In fact, the empiricism Schlick countered to transcendental idealism had not yet appeared in his previous writings but was quickly cobbled together from disparate elements: Henri Poincaré’s geometric conventionalism and selective readings of Einstein’s “Geometry and Experience” and earlier texts of Hermann von Helmholtz. The result of Schlick’s improvisation is that the empiricist interpretation of the spacetime metric rests on conventions regarding the behavior of rigid rods and clocks.Less

The Annotated Manuscript

Hanoch Gutfreund and Jürgen Renn

in The Road to Relativity: The History and Meaning of Einstein's "The Foundation of General Relativity", Featuring the Original Manuscript of Einstein's Masterpiece

This section presents annotations of the manuscript of Albert Einstein's canonical 1916 paper on the general theory of relativity. It begins with a discussion of the foundation of the general theory ... More

This section presents annotations of the manuscript of Albert Einstein's canonical 1916 paper on the general theory of relativity. It begins with a discussion of the foundation of the general theory of relativity, taking into account Einstein's fundamental considerations on the postulate of relativity, and more specifically why he went beyond the special theory of relativity. It then considers the spacetime continuum, explaining the role of coordinates in the new theory of gravitation. It also describes tensors of the second and higher ranks, multiplication of tensors, the equation of the geodetic line, the formation of tensors by differentiation, equations of motion of a material point in the gravitational field, the general form of the field equations of gravitation, and the laws of conservation in the general case. Finally, the behavior of rods and clocks in the static gravitational field is examined.Less

Introduction

Thomas Ryckman

in The Reign of Relativity: Philosophy in Physics 1915-1925

The general theory of relativity (GTR) brought a revolutionary transformation in philosophical as well as physical outlook. The philosopher Mortiz Schick, student of Max Planck, played a pivotal role ... More

The general theory of relativity (GTR) brought a revolutionary transformation in philosophical as well as physical outlook. The philosopher Mortiz Schick, student of Max Planck, played a pivotal role in fashioning the received view that GTR implied the untenability of any type of Kantian philosophy. Schlick’s assessment ignored the philosophically motivated contributions to GTR by Hermann Weyl and Arthur Eddington. Paul Dirac in 1931 recognized the significance of a new method of a priori mathematical speculation in theoretical physics, tying it to Eddington (and to Weyl).Less

Einstein’s Intellectual Odyssey to General Relativity

Hanoch Gutfreund and Jürgen Renn

in The Road to Relativity: The History and Meaning of Einstein's "The Foundation of General Relativity", Featuring the Original Manuscript of Einstein's Masterpiece

This section discusses the development of Albert Einstein's ideas and attitudes as he struggled for eight years to come up with a general theory of relativity that would meet the physical and ... More

This section discusses the development of Albert Einstein's ideas and attitudes as he struggled for eight years to come up with a general theory of relativity that would meet the physical and mathematical requirements laid down at the outset. It first considers Einstein's work on gravitation in Prague before analyzing three documents that played a significant role in his search for a theory of general relativity: the Zurich Notebook, the Einstein–Grossmann Entwurf paper, and the Einstein–Besso manuscript. It then looks at Einstein's completion of his general theory of relativity in Berlin in November 1915, along with his development of a new theory of gravitation within the framework of the special theory of relativity. It also examines the formulation of the basic idea that Einstein termed the “equivalence principle,” his Entwurf theory vs. David Hilbert's theory, and the 1916 manuscript of Einstein's work on the general theory of relativity.Less

Transcendental‐Phenomenological Idealism: Husserl and Weyl

Thomas Ryckman

in The Reign of Relativity: Philosophy in Physics 1915-1925

Weyl’s major contributions in the spring of 1918 to the general theory of relativity and to constructive analysis reveal the influence of Husserl’s transcendental-phenomenological idealism. The known ... More

Weyl’s major contributions in the spring of 1918 to the general theory of relativity and to constructive analysis reveal the influence of Husserl’s transcendental-phenomenological idealism. The known personal contacts of Weyl and Husserl are summarized, and Husserl’s development of a distinctively transcendental approach to phenomenology is traced. A synopsis is given of the salient methodological aspects of Husserl’s transcendental phenomenology in evidence in Weyl’s “pure infinitesimal geometry”, and in its use as a framework “world geometry” for gravitation and electromagnetism.Less

A New Conception of Science

Nicholas Maxwell

in The Comprehensibility of the Universe: A New Conception of Science

This chapter argues that a view called aim-oriented empiricism solves the central problems of what scientific method is. This view is different from the orthodox of view of science which holds that ... More

This chapter argues that a view called aim-oriented empiricism solves the central problems of what scientific method is. This view is different from the orthodox of view of science which holds that the distinctive feature of science is that laws and theories should be accepted and rejected solely with respect to the justice they do to the evidence. The important role that aim-oriented empiricism has played in scientific progress has been obscured by the fact that standard empiricism has long been the official conception of science. But Einstein’s discovery of general and special relativity has paved the way for the development of something close to aim-oriented empiricism. The chapter uses two doctrines to compare and contrast standard and aim-oriented empiricism: The Principle of Empiricism, and The Principle of Intellectual Integrity.Less

Frazer and Einstein

in Victorian Relativity: Radical Thought and Scientific Discovery

This chapter explores the unstable conceptual field by means of a comparative discussion of two of the most ambitious scholarly projects of the age: James Frazer's Golden Bough and Einstein's special ... More

This chapter explores the unstable conceptual field by means of a comparative discussion of two of the most ambitious scholarly projects of the age: James Frazer's Golden Bough and Einstein's special theory of relativity. The movement of thought centered upon “the principle of Universal Relativity” had slowly but surely crystallized in the form of positive, sustained intellectual applications. The Golden Bough is the text in which the reconceptualization of anthropology as a thoroughgoing theory of symbolism, and the consequent identification of it with a radical principle of relativity, is most decisively asserted. Thus, the interlocking bodies of work of both Frazer and Einstein overturn the proposition about relativity movement.Less

Epilogue: The “Geometrization of Physics” and Transcendental Idealism

Thomas Ryckman

in The Reign of Relativity: Philosophy in Physics 1915-1925

The transcendental idealist underpinnings of the geometrized field physics proposed by Hermann Weyl and by Arthur Eddington remained largely unrecognized. Èmile Meyerson was a notable exception. It ... More

The transcendental idealist underpinnings of the geometrized field physics proposed by Hermann Weyl and by Arthur Eddington remained largely unrecognized. Èmile Meyerson was a notable exception. It is argued that Meyerson came closest to comprehending the epistemological motivations of Weyl and Eddington yet was hindered by his failure to understand how transcendental idealism could be supported in the absence of a literal interpretation of the Transcendental Aesthetic. While geometrical unification in physics ostensibly supports a structural realism, the theories of Weyl and Eddington, to the contrary, are explicit attempts to show how the concept of physical object has been transformed within the general theory of relativity.Less

Einstein’s Lectures

Hanoch Gutfreund and Jürgen Renn

in The Formative Years of Relativity: The History and Meaning of Einstein's Princeton Lectures

This chapter reproduces the extant text of the two lectures. In these two lectures, Einstein explains very thoroughly the principles and conceptual foundations of, first, special and then general ... More

This chapter reproduces the extant text of the two lectures. In these two lectures, Einstein explains very thoroughly the principles and conceptual foundations of, first, special and then general relativity with a minimum of mathematical apparatus. He also includes qualitative discussions of the main experiential evidence supporting his theories, such as the Michelson-Morley experiment (which Einstein calls the Michelson experiment) as support for the validity of the relativity principle, and also of the propagation of light. The guiding theme is the principle of relativity, which he begins to explain in basic kinematic terms. In the conclusion of both his lectures, he emphasizes, first, that the most important task of a physical theory is to reduce the number of independent assumptions rooted in experience, and that, second, spatial and temporal aspects of reality are inevitably tied up with all other physical laws.Less

Introduction

Hanoch Gutfreund and Jürgen Renn

in The Formative Years of Relativity: The History and Meaning of Einstein's Princeton Lectures

This introductory chapter provides a brief background into the development of Albert Einstein's special and general theories of relativity. As a characteristic stage in the development of the theory, ... More

This introductory chapter provides a brief background into the development of Albert Einstein's special and general theories of relativity. As a characteristic stage in the development of the theory, the chapter focuses on the formative years which have, remarkably, received less attention from historians than subsequent periods. It argues that a “renaissance” of general relativity had begun essentially as the result of a community-building effort turning the theory into a universally applicable framework. This revival was followed by what has been called the “golden age” of relativity, which witnessed new conceptual insights, such as those into the nature of spacetime singularities, and turned the theory into the foundation of modern astrophysics and observational cosmology.Less

Setting the stage

A. J. Leggett

in The Problems of Physics

This chapter traces the history of physics as we know it from its beginnings in the astronomy and mechanics of the 17th century, through the development of electromagnetism, optics, and mechanics in ... More

This chapter traces the history of physics as we know it from its beginnings in the astronomy and mechanics of the 17th century, through the development of electromagnetism, optics, and mechanics in the 18th, and the unification of optics with electromagnetism and thermodynamics with molecular theory in the 19th century, up to the two great revolutions of the early 20th century: the special theory of relativity, and quantum mechanics. It ends with a discussion of the relationship of physics to mathematics and philosophy, and of the nature of the fundamental assumptions about the world which underpin the subject.Less