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This chapter reviews theoretical models that have guided thinking and research on health behavior change, providing a historical perspective on major developments in the field. Included in this overview are the Health Belief Model, Theory of Reasoned Action, Theory of Planned Behavior, Transtheoretical Model of Change, Social-Cognitive Models, Precaution-Adoption Process Model, and the Information–Motivation–Strategy Model. The contexts in which these models have been tested, along with their effectiveness as demonstrated by the empirical literature, are described. Examples for practical application are also provided, as are caveats and information about contexts in which these models (or portions thereof) are not well supported.

Despite the ex post facto identification of a number of “anticipations” of game-theoretic results through history, it is generally agreed that modern game theory’s founding work was mathematician John von Neumann and economist Oskar Morgenstern’s 1944 book, Theory of Games and Economic Behavior. Yet to a student of game theory trained in recent decades, the book must seem antique in terms of its notations, style of presentation, and terminology. This chapter is therefore principally devoted to explicating the text of von Neumann and Morgenstern’s book, emphasizing the diverse nature of its contents: a dynamic, set-theoretic depiction of games in “extensive form;” the matrix “normal form” of the game and the celebrated “minimax theorem,” with its rich connections to topology and the theory of fixed points; the “characteristic function form” of games and definition of “solutions” as non-dominated sets of imputations; and finally, the von Neumann – Morgenstern theory of utility, which constructed a measure of utility from axioms of preference ordering. These pieces of the theory were not just selectively appropriated and used by different groups of individuals after 1944, but they were also the outgrowth of varied research interests of the book’s authors in the years preceding its publication.

Heath, Jowell, and Curtice analyse Margaret Thatcher's distinctive form of British nationalism that embraced a range of issues such as strong defence, vigorous pursuit of British interests in Europe, the protection of British sovereignty, and the maintenance of the Union. They discuss how Thatcherite the electorate was on these issues. As on the economic front, Margaret Thatcher tended to be more extreme than the electorate, both on nuclear defence, where the electorate did not share her enthusiasm for the deployment of American nuclear Cruise missiles in Britain, and on the maintenance of the Union, where the electorate progressively moved away from her brand of British nationalism. On Europe, the Conservatives were closest to the electorate but the disunity of the party over the issue gave out confusing signals to the voters, and the Conservatives proved vulnerable to the Referendum Party created in 1995 with the aim to campaign on the preservation of British sovereignty. The results from the analysis are consistent with the ‘top‐down’ theory of voting behaviour, according to which parties may be able to influence how voters see issues and can themselves shape their supporter's attitudes.

The theory of planned behavior (TPB) and stages of change (SOC) models have been used to predict physical activity (PA) in people with disabilities. The purpose of this chapter is to give an overview of the TPB and SOC models and the research findings stemming from testing them in people with impairments. The health action process approach (HAPA), designed with individuals with disabilities, is also introduced, along with suggested future research using the HAPA. The HAPA is in many ways a meta-theory, as it incorporates many constructs from theories discussed here and in other chapters. For instance, various forms of self-efficacy, outcome expectations, coping, planning, and social support are all included in the HAPA. In addition, the HAPA includes a three-stage model in which people are labeled as pre-intenders, intenders, or actors. Researchers intending to use the SOC theories and the TPB should know that they have come under criticism, and these criticisms are addressed in the chapter.

Age-related changes in physical health and cognitive functions can negatively affect quality of life as well as increase caregiver burden and societal healthcare costs. While aging services technologies (ASTs) have the potential to facilitate functional independence, they have been underutilized in the aging population due to various factors, including awareness and access. ASTs were defined in the 2009 American Recovery and Reinvestment Act as “health technology that meets the health-care needs of seniors, individuals with disabilities, and the caregivers of such seniors and individuals” (Public Law 111-5). For the purpose of this chapter, tools or devices not discussed in the context of older adult use are referred to as assistive technologies (ATs). Both ATs and ASTs span a spectrum from low-tech to high-tech devices. Low-tech devices are often simple, easy to operate, and economical. Magnifying glasses, pill boxes, daily planners, and canes are all considered low-tech devices. In contrast, high-tech devices are computerized, often require additional training to learn and to operate, and are more costly. Computers, tablets, smartphone software or assistive apps, wearable sensors, and smart homes are some examples of high-tech tools. An assortment of ASTs are available to address both physical changes (e.g., changes in vision or mobility) and cognitive limitations (e.g., memory decline). The devices can be used to address issues that arise from normal aging as well as symptoms associated with neurological disorders, including memory, motor, and autoimmune disorders (Cattaneo, de Nuzzo, Fascia, Macalli, Pisoni, Cardini, 2002; Constantinescu, Leonard, Deeley, & Kurlan, 2007; Padilla, 2011). In a randomized controlled study, Mann and colleagues (1999) recruited older adults who were in need of ASTs (e.g., receiving in-home services, participating in a hospital rehabilitation program) and assigned them to usual standard of care or treatment. Participants in the treatment group received an 18-month intervention that included ongoing functional assessment as well as recommendations for ASTs and home modifications.

This brief concluding chapter provides a succinct treatment of what we see as the major conceptual advances associated with the central arguments of this book. In it, we describe a set of psychological mechanisms that share specific characteristics (behavioral control units), which provide animals with the ability to control their responses to environmental stimuli and thus solve ecological problems, acquiring benefits in the process that sustain their survival and reproduction. Understanding behavior in this way places our species in proper perspective with respect to the rest of the animal kingdom, and explains how we have become the dominant species, with such power over our environment.