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A university startup has a number of characteristics, many of which are common to any startup. Central to the startup is the business model, the mechanism by which the company will create, market, and sell products and services in exchange for money from the customer. In addition, university startups involve many discrete operations including technology development, product development, sales and marketing, and manufacturing. The university startup is set in the context of an ecosystem composed of the university, people, and money. The university provides the innovation, usually in the form of intellectual property by way of a license, around which the startup is formed. People provide the expertise, management, judgement, decision-making, advice, and connections essential for launching and growing a startup. Money is the fuel to build the startup. It comes in two basic forms: dilutive and non-dilutive. The former involving a sharing of the company ownership and the latter not.

The relationship between war and economic development has been controversial in economic history. During the Cold War, defense and defense-related research and development were criticized as a burden on commercial technology development. The purpose of this book is to demonstrate that military and defense-related research, development, and procurement have represented major sources of technology development across a broad spectrum of industries that account for an important share of U.S. industrial production. This first chapter presents an overview of the theoretical perspectives that economists have used to interpret the rate and direction of technical change.

In recent years, there has been a steady expansion in the literature that relates the internationalization of production to the development and transfer of technology by multinational enterprises (MNEs). The first section of this chapter discusses this, and notes the current shift of attention away from technology transfer per se, and the parallel shift in the terms in which technology is now defined and conceptualized. The latter is further addressed in the second section, which considers technology in relation to MNEs in its broadest sense of international technology creation and innovation. The third section examines the relationship between foreign direct investment (FDI) and the construction of corporate technological capabilities in the MNE, and the fourth examines intra‐ and inter‐firm international networks for technological development. The fifth section extends the discussion to the role of information and communications technology (ICT) within such international MNE networks.

This chapter puts the open source model of technology development in a broader perspective, and discusses the cultural and value system that underlies open source. It argues that a study on the socio-cognitive basis of innovation leads to a new approach in economic theory, where the concept of value has to accommodate the idea that in innovation processes new meaning is created and new domains of social practice are generated. Such ‘expansive’ theories of economics may lead to new insights when we formulate and study technology and innovation policy. The chapter also points out that the networked mode of production that underlies open source may lead to new dynamics in socio-economic development as the social institutions that usually provide stability in socio-economic systems are constantly renegotiated in the network mode of development. The chapter also discusses the differences and similarities between the open source model and the Silicon Valley innovation system, and identifies some areas for further study.

This chapter uses evidence from three case studies of irrigation reform processes in irrigation systems of different scale and complexity in the Nepalese Terai to show changing dynamics in and between irrigation technology and institutions. It also reviews the changing nature of Nepalese policies for irrigation reform and the evolution of assistance programmes shaping these field experiences. Reforms have been especially weak in not providing enough incentive for improved management performance, as envisaged in programme design, and still face institutional and technical problems. The chapter argues that future design of IMT programmes should build on, but move beyond, contemporary models of PIM and participatory technology development (PTD), to bring a new realism in reforming technology and institutions together. The transforming concept of ‘irrigation modernization’, applied with better understanding of local performance priorities, can perhaps help local organizations achieve service-oriented management in accordance with the resource base of irrigation systems.

This chapter examines companies that came to China from Denmark, Germany, and the United States—the three early leaders in wind power technology development. It looks into how Chinese companies assimilated foreign technology through research partnerships. Major players in China's wind power industry are typically grouped into three categories: Chinese firms, foreign firms, and Chinese-foreign joint ventures. Relationships with foreign businesses improved further due to the 1997 Ride the Wind Program, in which the Chinese government attempted to kick-start the domestic wind turbine industry with a series of Sino-foreign joint ventures. The program however faced difficulties as it required technology transfers from the foreign companies to Chinese partner companies which resulted in majority Chinese ownership of intellectual property and decision making. Due to this, tensions emerged due to required technology transfers as some companies were reluctant to share information and technology.

This chapter looks at a new but related problem: start-up scale-up. There is an additional and compounding innovation gap problem affecting start-ups that need to manufacture their products. While the advanced manufacturing institute model detailed in the previous chapter addresses innovation at large, midsize, and small manufacturing firms, to date it has largely focused on existing firms and has not encompassed new entrepreneurial start-ups. These start-up firms face not only an early-stage technology development gap, but also a production scale-up gap. Start-up scale-up is a problem in general, and particularly for manufacturing start-ups. This third category of firms, then, comprises the start-up and entrepreneurial firms that manufacture products based on their own new innovative technologies, typically emerging from university research centers.

This chapter covers $27.5 billion in subsidies to Chinese auto-parts from 2001-2011 that helped make one of the world’s largest producers and exporters. The auto-parts “pillar industry” received the Chinese government’s strong support, growing more than 150 percent since 2004, but is highly fragmented with more than 10,000 registered and 15,000 unregistered manufacturers. U.S. global auto strategy centered on manufacturing in China and exporting back home. Consequently, China’s auto-parts exports to the United States are three times those of its next highest trading destination, Japan. Specific subsidies included $2.3 billion reported by 73 companies (2001-2009); $1 billion to coal (2001-2010); $0.6 billion to electricity (2002-2010); $0.3 billion to natural gas (2004-2010); $1.6 billion to glass (2004-2010); $3.2 billion to cold-rolled steel (2003-2010); and $18.4 billion for technology-development and industrial-restructuring (2001-2011). For the next decade, the government has committed an additional $10.9 billion in subsidies for industrial-restructuring and technology-development.

In this book we have considered three questions: first, how dominant business systems have changed across Asian political economies since the early 1990s; second, how such changes can be understood and explained; and, third, how changing business systems have shaped the development of innovation strategies in the region. In the concluding chapter, we reconsider these questions in the light of the empirical evidence presented in the preceding contributions as well as that available from other sources. The first section compares the main patterns of change in nationally dominant business systems in different Asian economies over recent decades. The second section discusses the causes of these changes and variations through a comparison of endogenous and exogenous factors. The third section summarizes how state and corporate actors have managed technology development challenges differently across major Asian political economies as a result of variations in dominant business systems in the region.

This chapter explores the manufacturing workforce. Data indicates a growing need to upgrade the manufacturing workforce to higher levels of skills, which appears to be a prerequisite for advanced manufacturing. Indeed, the Advanced Manufacturing Partnership (AMP) reports placed much stress on workforce training and education, at both the skilled worker and engineering levels. The manufacturing institutes appear to be positioned to help fill the gap in U.S. labor markets for high-skill training. The Lightweight Innovations for Tomorrow (LIFT) institute in particular appears to be developing models for workforce training, systematically engaging state governments and firms in its core states in new training program elements, with programs linked to secondary schools, community colleges, participating employers, and area universities. LIFT sees that workforce training programs are critical for advanced manufacturing technology dissemination, not only training for the sake of training. It is a key way the institutes can scale their new technology developments.

This chapter describes the important legacy in space technology of the defense work undertaken at JPL. NASA's neglect of technology development continued into the 1980s; what little technology NASA did support emphasized the shuttle and the space station, with a focus on the short term instead of the long term. In spite of arguments by Lew Allen and other JPL staff that new technology could help cut costs, plans for low-budget planetary exploration stressed off-the-shelf components, and as a result such programs as electronics and sensors struggled for support. Allen made technology development a prime goal for JPL during his tenure. He acknowledged the need for conservative engineering on Voyager and Galileo but warned that risk aversion would sap JPL's ability to pursue dramatic missions in the long run.

This chapter examines the practices and logics that are being argued for when cloned animals are unequivocally classified as part of the endangered species. Focusing on the cloned gaur, African wildcats, and sand cat, it explores how cloning is articulated in order to pursue the scientific identity of the zoological park through technology development. The chapter first considers the cloning of an endangered sand cat at the Audubon Center for Research of Endangered Species (ACRES) in New Orleans before turning to the mesolevel, organizational work involved in the gaur and African wild cat cloning projects. It suggests that the focus on technology development—embodied by the cloned gaur, African wildcats, and sand cat—is consistent with the original formulation of the reproductive sciences that became incorporated into zoological parks.

The ABCD model can be used not only to build competitive advantages, but sustain them. As Korea moves forward into an increasingly complex and volatile economic environment with the emergence of new competitors from emerging countries along with the growing influence of China and Japan, it faces many issues regarding the sustainability of its competitive advantages in the future. By looking at the cases of other countries and applying the ABCD model, it is possible to derive future strategy related to technology development and innovation, differentiation strategy in the new competitive landscape, co-evolution and cluster strategy, and maximizing shared value and creating new business opportunity. Policy directions are then given for Korea to sustain its competitive advantages.

This chapter introduces an alternative articulation of cloning, one that uses cloning as part of an effort to shepherd rather than master endangered animals. It examines the scientific practices that are asserted when male animals produced through interspecies nuclear transfer are classified as part of the endangered species population, but female clones are not. This set of classificatory practices are embodied by the cloned banteng. The chapter first describes what cloning an endangered animal looks like within this set of classificatory practices by focusing on the microlevel practices at the Conservation and Research for Endangered Species's Frozen Zoo. It then turns to the banteng as an experiment in pluralist technology development. The classificatory practices embodied by the cloned banteng attempts to actively address and engage in the politics of cloning endangered animals, while carving out a different kind of wildlife.

The epilogue briefly summarizes the major changes that have occurred at the institute in the fifty years of its existence. The staff has reached twice the size planned by Salk, and the fellows and members are now called “professors.” The nonresident fellows now spend little time in La Jolla. Origins of life, history of science, and biology in human affairs are forgotten, as the institute has become a specialized biomedical research institute. Today, an elected academic council participates in academic decisions, and the board, chaired by Irwin Jacobs, is generous and powerful. An Office of Technology Development organizes patenting of scientific discoveries, as the NIH discourages basic research. The Kahn building is a historic landmark and a reminder of Jonas Salk’s dream.

This chapter discusses how Vernon Ruttan and Yujiro Hayami’s research provided a consistent and effective framework for analyzing how markets, technology development, and institutional changes interact to facilitate agricultural development. Ruttan and Hayami’s research are widely recognized for farmers’ increase in agricultural production due to effective technology and institutional change, as demonstrated by the Asian Green Revolution of the 1960s. The chapter concludes with an explanation of how the induced technical change theme provided the structure needed to integrate a large body of theoretical and empirical research on agricultural development.