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America’s Sweet Tooth: The Sugar Trust and the Caribbean Lowlands

Richard P. Tucker

in Insatiable Appetite: The United States and the Ecological Degradation of the Tropical World

This chapter studies sugar cane and the sugar cane industry. It starts with the influence of sugar cane on the history of Latin America, and looks at how the buyers of rum and molasses in different ... More

This chapter studies sugar cane and the sugar cane industry. It starts with the influence of sugar cane on the history of Latin America, and looks at how the buyers of rum and molasses in different American ports helped strengthen the slave sugar system. The discussion then shifts to the investments on sugar cane, which was due to the expanding European market. It also examines the slave sugar empires in tropical America, the dramatic transformations of societies and landscapes due to sugar, and the Spanish conquest and arrival of British sugar planters. Cuba is shown to be the greatest sugar producer in the world. Fidel Castro's revolution, the influence of the political shifts triggered by the Cold War, and the Spanish sugar plantations in Cuba are studied. The chapter ends with a discussion of the four regions where the sudden expansion of American imports produced rapid and dramatic increases of acreage diverted to sugar cane from natural vegetation, cattle pasture, or other crops.Less

The Sugar Question in Frontier Florida

in Raising Cane in the 'Glades: The Global Sugar Trade and the Transformation of Florida

This chapter focuses on the half-century preceding World War I, when the international political economy of sugar production and trade captured the world's attention. During this time, published ... More

This chapter focuses on the half-century preceding World War I, when the international political economy of sugar production and trade captured the world's attention. During this time, published debates, international conferences on the “sugar question,” and attempts by national governments to forge international sugar agreements proliferated. The development of the European beet-sugar industry and accompanying global surpluses posed a challenge to promoters of U.S. agricultural interests, who saw in domestic sugar production a regional development strategy. Florida boosters, especially, saw in the modernizing Cuban industry both an exemplary model and a formidable competitor. The chapter shows how changing ideas of sugar, of Florida, and of the U.S. role in the Caribbean shaped the context in which southern agricultural boosters promoted the establishment of a sugar industry. In so doing they articulated an “imagined economic geography,” a necessary but insufficient precursor to the development of a regional cane belt. These “imagined economic geographies” were quite detailed, including land measurements and speculation on potential labor sources, profits, and economic multipliers.Less

The Cold War Heats up the Nation's Sugar Bowl

in Raising Cane in the 'Glades: The Global Sugar Trade and the Transformation of Florida

In the context of the Cold War, the 1959 Cuban Revolution produced a profound historical shift in the economic geography of U.S. sugar sourcing. This chapter concentrates on the years immediately ... More

In the context of the Cold War, the 1959 Cuban Revolution produced a profound historical shift in the economic geography of U.S. sugar sourcing. This chapter concentrates on the years immediately preceding and following the revolution. Prior to the revolution, Cuba was both Florida's principal rival and its production model. When, in 1960, President Eisenhower suspended the Cuban quota, a scramble to increase allotments ensued among producing regions, both domestic and foreign. Florida emerged as one of the significant “winners” in the fight to secure a larger share of the U.S. market. The chapter shows why that was so, how the industry was able to expand five-fold within five years, and how the relationship between the Florida and Cuban sugar industries was transformed. The explosive growth of south Florida sugarcane production, historically unprecedented in U.S. agro-industry, made the region the single most powerful player in the competition over quotas during the Cold War.Less

A Commonwealth within Itself: The Early Brazilian Sugar Industry, 1550–1670

Stuart B. Schwartz

in Tropical Babylons: Sugar and the Making of the Atlantic World, 1450-1680

This chapter discusses the introduction of sugarcane and the beginnings of the sugar industry in Brazil from 1550–1670. It begins with an overview of the Brazilian sugar economy and the expansion of ... More

This chapter discusses the introduction of sugarcane and the beginnings of the sugar industry in Brazil from 1550–1670. It begins with an overview of the Brazilian sugar economy and the expansion of the industry in the Atlantic market. This is followed by a brief overview of the Dutch experience with sugar production during their occupation of the Brazilian Northeast (1630–54). The chapter also examines the extensive use of sharecropping and other forms of contract, the transition from indigenous labor force to African slaves, and increased sugar shipping from Brazil during the period of the industry's rapid growth.Less

A Restructured Industry

in Raising Cane in the 'Glades: The Global Sugar Trade and the Transformation of Florida

This chapter considers the challenges posed by the rapid growth of plantation production in rural Florida. The geographic expansion of the industry raised new questions about the treatment of labor ... More

This chapter considers the challenges posed by the rapid growth of plantation production in rural Florida. The geographic expansion of the industry raised new questions about the treatment of labor and the downstream environmental impacts of agriculture in the Everglades Agricultural Area. From 1965 to 1985, the sugar question gained prominence during successive administrations, as presidents from Lyndon Johnson through Jimmy Carter sought to achieve a balance in U.S. sugar policy between foreign policy initiatives and domestic political realities. Moreover, each administration sought not only to balance U.S. sugar policy, but to use sugar quotas as the means to build and maintain circles of influence in foreign affairs that extended beyond the realm of commodity interests per se. In the context of the Cold War, sugar was still seen as a tool of regional agro-industrial development; however, the emphasis was on foreign rather than domestic regional development.Less

Questioning Sugar in the Everglades

in Raising Cane in the 'Glades: The Global Sugar Trade and the Transformation of Florida

This chapter brings the historic arc of the sugar question to the present, illustrating how changing political-economic and geopolitical contexts along with shifts in the scientific and symbolic ... More

This chapter brings the historic arc of the sugar question to the present, illustrating how changing political-economic and geopolitical contexts along with shifts in the scientific and symbolic meanings of the Everglades transformed the Florida sugar industry from a political powerhouse to a pariah. Elements of the industry promoters' discursive strategies have persisted, but they have been reworked to respond to these new challenges, manifested in the likes of the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA), Central American Free Trade Agreement (CAFTA), and Everglades restoration plans.Less

Wish Fulfillment for Florida Growers: Managed Market, Disciplined Labor, Engineered Landscape

in Raising Cane in the 'Glades: The Global Sugar Trade and the Transformation of Florida

This chapter argues that the newly established Florida sugar industry now faced three problems in expanding its production and profits: competition for quota share, labor supply, and water control. ... More

This chapter argues that the newly established Florida sugar industry now faced three problems in expanding its production and profits: competition for quota share, labor supply, and water control. It begins by offering a fresh interpretation of the domestic political maneuverings behind the 1930s Sugar Acts, arguing that Florida's sugar interests played a hitherto unrecognized role. The Sugar Acts were the main tool of New Deal sugar policies, which were intended to balance the competing interests of sugar-producing regions through a system of quota allocation. With the legislative establishment of quotas, political competition among producing regions intensified, and new discursive strategies of place-based comparisons emerged. The chapter demonstrates how ideas about sugar and national security were used to restructure the geography of the regional labor market with the help of the federal government. Finally, it examines how the federal government addressed the third problem facing the industry when the Army Corps of Engineers undertook the Central and Southern Florida Flood Control Project, economically justified in part by the potential for increased sugar revenue.Less

The Sugar Industry in the Seventeenth Century A New Perspective on the Barbadian “Sugar Revolution”

John J. McCusker and Russell R. Menard

in Tropical Babylons: Sugar and the Making of the Atlantic World, 1450-1680

The rise of the sugar industry in Barbados has been labeled the Barbadian “sugar revolution.” Focusing on Barbados, the first non-Iberian colony to develop an important sugar economy, this chapter ... More

The rise of the sugar industry in Barbados has been labeled the Barbadian “sugar revolution.” Focusing on Barbados, the first non-Iberian colony to develop an important sugar economy, this chapter demonstrates the continuity of practices and patterns with the Iberian colonies as well as the transfer of techniques from Brazil to Barbados. It also discusses: how the sugar revolution transformed Barbados in the decades surrounding 1650: sugar monoculture, expansion of plantations, arrival of African slaves, and destructive demographic patterns among both whites and blacks; importation of food and fuel; and the rise of wealth and power by sugar planters.Less

Sugar Islands The Sugar Economy of Madeira and the Canaries, 1450–1650

Alberto Vieira

in Tropical Babylons: Sugar and the Making of the Atlantic World, 1450-1680

This chapter examines the development of sugar industries in Madeira and the Canary Islands from the fifteenth to the seventeenth century. It compares the structure and dynamic of the two industries, ... More

This chapter examines the development of sugar industries in Madeira and the Canary Islands from the fifteenth to the seventeenth century. It compares the structure and dynamic of the two industries, and introduces the role of foreign capital in the sugar industry. The chapter also explores the importance of water rights as well as land, the development of coerced labor or forced slavery, the distribution of slaves in sugar mills, and sugar trade in European markets.Less

Eshaping Puerto Rico's Economy, 1898–1934

César J. Ayala and Rafael Bernabe

in Puerto Rico in the American Century: A History since 1898

This chapter examines the transformation of Puerto Rico's economy between 1898 and 1934 under U.S. rule. It begins by looking at the advent of “free trade” between Puerto Rico and the United States, ... More

This chapter examines the transformation of Puerto Rico's economy between 1898 and 1934 under U.S. rule. It begins by looking at the advent of “free trade” between Puerto Rico and the United States, made possible by the passage of the Foraker Act of 1900, and its impact on industries as well as land tenure, income distribution, internal migration, and settlement. Attention then turns to the sugar industry, which went from depression to boom, and U.S. investments in the tobacco industry. The chapter also discusses the crisis in the coffee industry and the rise of the needlework industry. Finally, it assesses the evolution of Puerto Rican agriculture during the period, with emphasis on the status of small farmers, agregados, and landless laborers.Less

The Sugar Economy of Española in the Sixteenth Century

Genaro Rodríguez Morel

in Tropical Babylons: Sugar and the Making of the Atlantic World, 1450-1680

This chapter examines the sugar economy of Española in the sixteenth century. It begins with a historical overview of the introduction of sugarcane from Madeira and the rapid growth of the sugar ... More

This chapter examines the sugar economy of Española in the sixteenth century. It begins with a historical overview of the introduction of sugarcane from Madeira and the rapid growth of the sugar industry as evidenced by the construction of several sugar mills. The chapter then describes the transfer of technology between regions, the levels of sugar production, the growth of slave labor, and the decline of the sugar industry.Less

Shipbuilding and the Sugar Industry, 1772–1791

Reinaldo Funes Monzote

in From Rainforest to Cane Field in Cuba: An Environmental History since 1492

This chapter focuses on Cuba's shipbuilding and sugar industry in the period between 1772 and 1791. It begins by looking at the sugar boom in Havana after Spain reformed its colonial system following ... More

This chapter focuses on Cuba's shipbuilding and sugar industry in the period between 1772 and 1791. It begins by looking at the sugar boom in Havana after Spain reformed its colonial system following the signing of a peace treaty with Britain in 1763, as well as the geographic expansion necessary to accommodate this growth. Attention then turns to the construction of sugar mills in Havana and Matanzas between 1772 and 1815, the method of cultivation that had been practiced on the island since the beginning of the sugar industry, and the use of woods in the ingenios. The chapter also describes the growth of Havana shipbuilding that had begun in the 1730s and the role of the Royal Forest Reserves in the exploitation of forests to supply lumber to shipyards. Finally, it considers the conflict between the Navy Command and the Captaincy General over the granting of woodcutting licenses in 1772–1783 and over the dismantlement of wooded estates in 1784–1791.Less

A Bigger, Better Hawai‘i: Making an American Molokai, 1893–1957

Wade Graham

in Braided Waters: Environment and Society in Molokai, Hawai'i

This chapter describes events from 1893 to 1957. The twentieth century began with Hawaii coming under outright control of the United States. In the years leading up to annexation, a series of steps ... More

This chapter describes events from 1893 to 1957. The twentieth century began with Hawaii coming under outright control of the United States. In the years leading up to annexation, a series of steps brought the two polities closer: with each one came a renewed push for the sugar industry. New techniques of tapping groundwater to irrigate dry, leeward lands brought a surge of investment and expansion. Molokai beckoned the ambitious from across the channel, virgin territory ripe for the plow. A big, well-capitalized sugar enterprise was launched there, as well as a far more modest one. Both met problems with difficult environmental circumstances; both failed. In spite of these setbacks, corporate, and frequently outsider, control was extended over much of the island, and the very purposeful transformation of the landscape in support of their economic needs continued.Less

From Everglades to Sugar Bowl and Back Again?

in Raising Cane in the 'Glades: The Global Sugar Trade and the Transformation of Florida

This chapter focuses on the political struggles over the ecological “restoration” of the Everglades, describing the criticisms leveled against the sugar industry for the negative environmental impact ... More

This chapter focuses on the political struggles over the ecological “restoration” of the Everglades, describing the criticisms leveled against the sugar industry for the negative environmental impact of cane cultivation, and the politics and economics of plantation production in south Florida. It discusses how the activities of sugarcane producers affect the downstream ecology, and addresses the “sugar question,” which refers to the intense international debates on the political economy of global sugar production and trade. The sugar question can be understood as a series of international and domestic political disputes and compromises over the use of various instruments employed to control global trade in the commodity. These instruments include bounties, tariffs, duties, and quotas. An overview of the subsequent chapters is also presented.Less

The Omnipresent Forest and the Beginnings of the Sugar Industry

Reinaldo Funes Monzote

in From Rainforest to Cane Field in Cuba: An Environmental History since 1492

This chapter examines the beginnings of the sugar industry in Cuba. It first describes the state of Cuban forests prior to the arrival of the Europeans in 1492, with particular reference to the ... More

This chapter examines the beginnings of the sugar industry in Cuba. It first describes the state of Cuban forests prior to the arrival of the Europeans in 1492, with particular reference to the island's “original” vegetation before the Spaniards landed on its shores. Attention then turns to the colonization of Cuba and its forests from 1510 to 1772, focusing on the impact of the first European settlements on wooded areas. Havana's transformation into a center of shipbuilding and the resulting increase in demand for wood are given consideration. The chapter also discusses the initial development of the sugar industry, particularly sugar mills, in the Havana region between 1600 and 1771. Finally, it analyzes how sugar plantations transformed Havana's environment.Less

Labor and Migration

César J. Ayala

in American Sugar Kingdom: The Plantation Economy of the Spanish Caribbean, 1898-1934

This chapter describes the expansion of the sugar industry in the Spanish Caribbean in the twentieth century. The change was so dramatic that it changed the economic balance between regions in each ... More

This chapter describes the expansion of the sugar industry in the Spanish Caribbean in the twentieth century. The change was so dramatic that it changed the economic balance between regions in each island, established new demographic patterns of settlement, and resulted in the settlement of lands that had hitherto remained largely depopulated. As new regions were opened up to the cultivation of sugar, the demand for labor, particularly in the agricultural phase of the process, which was labor intensive and required dedicated labor during the zafra, propelled workers into the new plantation zones. While the sugar industry experienced expansion everywhere, the supply of labor power for the plantations varied considerably from region to region.Less

Sugar and the Absolute Freedom to Clear Forests, 1815–1876

Reinaldo Funes Monzote

in From Rainforest to Cane Field in Cuba: An Environmental History since 1492

This chapter examines how the growth of the sugar industry resulted in absolute freedom to clear forests in Cuba between 1815 and 1876. It first describes the semimechanization and mechanization of ... More

This chapter examines how the growth of the sugar industry resulted in absolute freedom to clear forests in Cuba between 1815 and 1876. It first describes the semimechanization and mechanization of ingenios that ushered in the first golden age of Cuban sugar. Attention then turns to the construction of railroads that led to further expansion of sugar to the east, the transformation of the former province of Las Villas due to sugar expansion, and the increased exploitation of forests as the sugar boom continued. The chapter also considers the problem of fuel and the exhaustion of the soil in relation to Cuba's rapid deforestation before concluding with a discussion of efforts to adopt measures for the exploitation and conservation of Cuban forests.Less

North American Capital and Sugar's Final Assault on the Forest, 1898–1926

Reinaldo Funes Monzote

in From Rainforest to Cane Field in Cuba: An Environmental History since 1492

This chapter examines the transformation of Cuba's sugar industry between 1898 and 1926, and its impact on forests. It begins by considering the flow of massive U.S. capital to Cuba that allowed ... More

This chapter examines the transformation of Cuba's sugar industry between 1898 and 1926, and its impact on forests. It begins by considering the flow of massive U.S. capital to Cuba that allowed investors to become producers of most of the island's sugar. Attention then turns to Cuba's dependence on the United States and giant sugar corporations during this period, as well as the intensification of deforestation and general environmental change. The chapter also discusses the impact of World War I on the island's sugar industry and on U.S. investment, the unprecedented conquest of Cuba's natural regions most suited to sugar production, and the expansion of sugar on the plains of Camagüey. Finally, it evaluates measures aimed at protecting and repopulating the damaged forests of Cuba.Less