W. Kip Viscusi
- Published in print:
- 1998
- Published Online:
- November 2003
- ISBN:
- 9780198293637
- eISBN:
- 9780191596995
- Item type:
- book
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/0198293631.001.0001
- Subject:
- Economics and Finance, Microeconomics
Ideally, individual risk‐taking decisions and government risk policies should be based on a rational balancing of risk and cost. Unfortunately, private decisions are subject to a number of biases ...
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Ideally, individual risk‐taking decisions and government risk policies should be based on a rational balancing of risk and cost. Unfortunately, private decisions are subject to a number of biases including overestimation of small probabilities and alarmist responses to ambiguous risks. Hazard warnings can potentially be effective, but are not always ideal, as the people now overestimate the risks of smoking. Labour market estimates of the value of life can provide a rational reference point for benefit‐cost tests of risk regulations. The pressures exerted by irrational public responses to risk often lead to regulations that impose inordinately high costs per life saved. Excessive regulation potentially makes society worse off from a health and safety standpoint as shown by the risk–risk analysis methodology developed in this book. Similarly, liability rules and social insurance systems also should be structured to reflect an efficient balancing of risk and cost.Less
Ideally, individual risk‐taking decisions and government risk policies should be based on a rational balancing of risk and cost. Unfortunately, private decisions are subject to a number of biases including overestimation of small probabilities and alarmist responses to ambiguous risks. Hazard warnings can potentially be effective, but are not always ideal, as the people now overestimate the risks of smoking. Labour market estimates of the value of life can provide a rational reference point for benefit‐cost tests of risk regulations. The pressures exerted by irrational public responses to risk often lead to regulations that impose inordinately high costs per life saved. Excessive regulation potentially makes society worse off from a health and safety standpoint as shown by the risk–risk analysis methodology developed in this book. Similarly, liability rules and social insurance systems also should be structured to reflect an efficient balancing of risk and cost.
David Marsh and R. A. W. Rhodes (eds)
- Published in print:
- 1992
- Published Online:
- October 2011
- ISBN:
- 9780198278528
- eISBN:
- 9780191684210
- Item type:
- book
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780198278528.001.0001
- Subject:
- Political Science, UK Politics
Policy is not made in the electoral arena or in the gladiatorial confrontations of Parliament, but in the netherworld of committees, civil servants, professions, and interest groups. This collection ...
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Policy is not made in the electoral arena or in the gladiatorial confrontations of Parliament, but in the netherworld of committees, civil servants, professions, and interest groups. This collection explores the private world of public policy. It provides a survey of the literature on the concept of policy networks and demonstrates its importance for understanding specific policy areas. The case studies cover policy-making in agriculture, civil nuclear power, youth employment, smoking, heart disease, sea defences, information technology, and exchange rate policy. Finally the book attempts an overall assessment of the utility of the concept, focusing on such questions as why networks change, which interests dominate and benefit from networks, and the consequences of the present system for representative democracy.Less
Policy is not made in the electoral arena or in the gladiatorial confrontations of Parliament, but in the netherworld of committees, civil servants, professions, and interest groups. This collection explores the private world of public policy. It provides a survey of the literature on the concept of policy networks and demonstrates its importance for understanding specific policy areas. The case studies cover policy-making in agriculture, civil nuclear power, youth employment, smoking, heart disease, sea defences, information technology, and exchange rate policy. Finally the book attempts an overall assessment of the utility of the concept, focusing on such questions as why networks change, which interests dominate and benefit from networks, and the consequences of the present system for representative democracy.
Anthony Swerdlow, Isabel Dos Santos Silva, and Richard Doll
- Published in print:
- 2001
- Published Online:
- September 2009
- ISBN:
- 9780192627483
- eISBN:
- 9780191723698
- Item type:
- book
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780192627483.001.0001
- Subject:
- Public Health and Epidemiology, Public Health, Epidemiology
Cancer causes a quarter of all deaths in England and Wales. There is great professional and public interest in cancer trends, but no satisfactory source to which to turn to find information about ...
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Cancer causes a quarter of all deaths in England and Wales. There is great professional and public interest in cancer trends, but no satisfactory source to which to turn to find information about these trends and explanation of them. It is even more difficult to know where to turn for information on trends in factors causing cancer. This book presents new analyses that bring together data on cancer trends in England and Wales since 1868. Detailed consideration is given to the reasons for changes in rates of cancer, in relation to a wide range of risk factors and preventive factors. Data are presented with figures and tables describing long-term trends in more than fifty factors that may affect the risk of cancer, including AIDS, asbestos exposure, cancer screening, childbearing, diet, smoking, and ultraviolet radiation. Particular attention is given to trends in recent decades, but historical trends are also considered.Less
Cancer causes a quarter of all deaths in England and Wales. There is great professional and public interest in cancer trends, but no satisfactory source to which to turn to find information about these trends and explanation of them. It is even more difficult to know where to turn for information on trends in factors causing cancer. This book presents new analyses that bring together data on cancer trends in England and Wales since 1868. Detailed consideration is given to the reasons for changes in rates of cancer, in relation to a wide range of risk factors and preventive factors. Data are presented with figures and tables describing long-term trends in more than fifty factors that may affect the risk of cancer, including AIDS, asbestos exposure, cancer screening, childbearing, diet, smoking, and ultraviolet radiation. Particular attention is given to trends in recent decades, but historical trends are also considered.
Barbara Forey, Jan Hamling, Peter Lee, and Nicholas Wald (eds)
- Published in print:
- 2002
- Published Online:
- September 2009
- ISBN:
- 9780198508564
- eISBN:
- 9780191723773
- Item type:
- book
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780198508564.001.0001
- Subject:
- Public Health and Epidemiology, Public Health, Epidemiology
International Smoking Statistics presents a valuable collection of smoking data relating to thirty countries—most of Europe, and also Australia, Canada, Japan, New Zealand, USA, and the ...
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International Smoking Statistics presents a valuable collection of smoking data relating to thirty countries—most of Europe, and also Australia, Canada, Japan, New Zealand, USA, and the former USSR. Annual data on the national sales of all types of tobacco products are presented for the years up to 1995, with over 100 years of data available for some countries. Both manufactured and hand-rolled cigarettes are considered, as well as pipes and cigars, and smokeless tobacco products. These data are also presented on a per-adult basis. The transition from plain to filter and to lower tar cigarettes is documented. Up to fifty years of survey-based data are presented on the sex- and age-specific prevalence of smoking and amount smoked. National data are shown when available, supplemented by relevant data from international, regional, and epidemiological studies. Surveys of adolescents and adults are included. Appropriate attention is given to the varying definitions and methodologies of the source material, while presenting data in a consistent format. Some summary statistics are derived using standardized methods which are fully described, allowing international comparisons to be made.Less
International Smoking Statistics presents a valuable collection of smoking data relating to thirty countries—most of Europe, and also Australia, Canada, Japan, New Zealand, USA, and the former USSR. Annual data on the national sales of all types of tobacco products are presented for the years up to 1995, with over 100 years of data available for some countries. Both manufactured and hand-rolled cigarettes are considered, as well as pipes and cigars, and smokeless tobacco products. These data are also presented on a per-adult basis. The transition from plain to filter and to lower tar cigarettes is documented. Up to fifty years of survey-based data are presented on the sex- and age-specific prevalence of smoking and amount smoked. National data are shown when available, supplemented by relevant data from international, regional, and epidemiological studies. Surveys of adolescents and adults are included. Appropriate attention is given to the varying definitions and methodologies of the source material, while presenting data in a consistent format. Some summary statistics are derived using standardized methods which are fully described, allowing international comparisons to be made.
John P. Pierce, Janet M. Distefan, and David Hill
- Published in print:
- 2010
- Published Online:
- September 2010
- ISBN:
- 9780199566655
- eISBN:
- 9780191594410
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199566655.003.0017
- Subject:
- Public Health and Epidemiology, Public Health, Epidemiology
It is over forty years since the public health community came to the consensus that smoking tobacco, particularly cigarettes, caused lung cancer. Despite widespread dissemination of the likely health ...
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It is over forty years since the public health community came to the consensus that smoking tobacco, particularly cigarettes, caused lung cancer. Despite widespread dissemination of the likely health consequences, cigarette smoking is still a prevalent behaviour in all developed countries and is a rapidly increasing behaviour in developing countries. There is an extensive literature on quitting studies indicating that, for many smokers, successful quitting is one of the hardest lifestyle changes to achieve. Given this, many argue that the majority of the emphasis should be on preventing the initiation of smoking in the first place. This chapter focuses on influences encouraging young people to become smokers.Less
It is over forty years since the public health community came to the consensus that smoking tobacco, particularly cigarettes, caused lung cancer. Despite widespread dissemination of the likely health consequences, cigarette smoking is still a prevalent behaviour in all developed countries and is a rapidly increasing behaviour in developing countries. There is an extensive literature on quitting studies indicating that, for many smokers, successful quitting is one of the hardest lifestyle changes to achieve. Given this, many argue that the majority of the emphasis should be on preventing the initiation of smoking in the first place. This chapter focuses on influences encouraging young people to become smokers.
Maria Leon-Roux and John P. Pierce
- Published in print:
- 2010
- Published Online:
- September 2010
- ISBN:
- 9780199566655
- eISBN:
- 9780191594410
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199566655.003.0036
- Subject:
- Public Health and Epidemiology, Public Health, Epidemiology
Leading health agencies have published authoritative reports evaluating the research on the health risks of second-hand smoke (SHS). There is a consensus across these reports that SHS (also called ...
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Leading health agencies have published authoritative reports evaluating the research on the health risks of second-hand smoke (SHS). There is a consensus across these reports that SHS (also called involuntary smoking) causes several diseases in non-smokers including lung cancer, heart disease, and both chronic and acute respiratory disease. The World Health Organization (WHO) negotiated the unprecedented Framework Convention on Tobacco Control (FCTC), the first ever public health treaty that achieved widespread support among member nations. Article 8 of the WHO FCTC focuses on the ‘protection from exposure to tobacco smoke’. Countries signing the treaty are required to implement policies to protect all people from exposure to SHS by law and not by means of voluntary agreements. To provide better clarification of the benefits of WHO FCTC compliant legislation, in April 2008, the International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) convened a group of seventeen scientists from nine countries in Lyon, France to assess the evidence for the effectiveness of smoke-free policies. The group proposed eleven potentially causal statements and summarized the strength of the evidence for each statement using the following five IARC classifications: sufficient, strong, limited, inadequate or no evidence and evidence of lack of an effect. This chapter presents a summary of that evidence and the main conclusions of the report.Less
Leading health agencies have published authoritative reports evaluating the research on the health risks of second-hand smoke (SHS). There is a consensus across these reports that SHS (also called involuntary smoking) causes several diseases in non-smokers including lung cancer, heart disease, and both chronic and acute respiratory disease. The World Health Organization (WHO) negotiated the unprecedented Framework Convention on Tobacco Control (FCTC), the first ever public health treaty that achieved widespread support among member nations. Article 8 of the WHO FCTC focuses on the ‘protection from exposure to tobacco smoke’. Countries signing the treaty are required to implement policies to protect all people from exposure to SHS by law and not by means of voluntary agreements. To provide better clarification of the benefits of WHO FCTC compliant legislation, in April 2008, the International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) convened a group of seventeen scientists from nine countries in Lyon, France to assess the evidence for the effectiveness of smoke-free policies. The group proposed eleven potentially causal statements and summarized the strength of the evidence for each statement using the following five IARC classifications: sufficient, strong, limited, inadequate or no evidence and evidence of lack of an effect. This chapter presents a summary of that evidence and the main conclusions of the report.
Julian Le Grand and BILL New
- Published in print:
- 2015
- Published Online:
- October 2017
- ISBN:
- 9780691164373
- eISBN:
- 9781400866298
- Item type:
- book
- Publisher:
- Princeton University Press
- DOI:
- 10.23943/princeton/9780691164373.001.0001
- Subject:
- Political Science, Public Policy
Should governments save people from themselves? Do governments have the right to influence citizens' behavior related to smoking tobacco, eating too much, not saving enough, drinking alcohol, or ...
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Should governments save people from themselves? Do governments have the right to influence citizens' behavior related to smoking tobacco, eating too much, not saving enough, drinking alcohol, or taking marijuana—or does this create a nanny state, leading to infantilization, demotivation, and breaches in individual autonomy? Looking at examples from both sides of the Atlantic and around the world, this book examines the justifications for, and the prevalence of, government paternalism and considers when intervention might or might not be acceptable. Building on developments in philosophy, behavioral economics, and psychology, the book explores the roles, boundaries, and responsibilities of the government and its citizens. It investigates specific policy areas, including smoking, saving for pensions, and assisted suicide. It then discusses legal restrictions on risky behavior, taxation of harmful activities, and subsidies for beneficial activities. The book pays particular attention to “nudge” or libertarian paternalist proposals that try to change the context in which individuals make decisions so that they make the right ones. It argues that individuals often display “reasoning failure”: an inability to achieve the ends that they set themselves. Such instances are ideal for paternalistic interventions—for though such interventions might impinge on autonomy, the impact can be outweighed by an improvement in well-being. Finally, the book rigorously considers whether the state should guide citizen decision making in positive ways and if so, how this should be achieved.Less
Should governments save people from themselves? Do governments have the right to influence citizens' behavior related to smoking tobacco, eating too much, not saving enough, drinking alcohol, or taking marijuana—or does this create a nanny state, leading to infantilization, demotivation, and breaches in individual autonomy? Looking at examples from both sides of the Atlantic and around the world, this book examines the justifications for, and the prevalence of, government paternalism and considers when intervention might or might not be acceptable. Building on developments in philosophy, behavioral economics, and psychology, the book explores the roles, boundaries, and responsibilities of the government and its citizens. It investigates specific policy areas, including smoking, saving for pensions, and assisted suicide. It then discusses legal restrictions on risky behavior, taxation of harmful activities, and subsidies for beneficial activities. The book pays particular attention to “nudge” or libertarian paternalist proposals that try to change the context in which individuals make decisions so that they make the right ones. It argues that individuals often display “reasoning failure”: an inability to achieve the ends that they set themselves. Such instances are ideal for paternalistic interventions—for though such interventions might impinge on autonomy, the impact can be outweighed by an improvement in well-being. Finally, the book rigorously considers whether the state should guide citizen decision making in positive ways and if so, how this should be achieved.
Richard Kraut
- Published in print:
- 2012
- Published Online:
- January 2012
- ISBN:
- 9780199844463
- eISBN:
- 9780199919550
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199844463.003.0008
- Subject:
- Philosophy, Moral Philosophy
In Chapter 6 it was argued that we should not infer from something's being bad for someone that it is bad simpliciter. The example was this: smoking cigarettes might be bad for George, but it would ...
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In Chapter 6 it was argued that we should not infer from something's being bad for someone that it is bad simpliciter. The example was this: smoking cigarettes might be bad for George, but it would not follow that smoking is bad (period). In addition to rejecting this inference, we should also ask a question about its conclusion: what would it even mean to say that smoking is bad? This chapter addresses this question. Doing so should make us realize that Geach, Foot, and Thomson have raised a legitimate question, and one that is not easily answered. Although their diagnosis of what goes awry in talk about absolute goodness is rejected, it is a step forward to feel the force of their argument.Less
In Chapter 6 it was argued that we should not infer from something's being bad for someone that it is bad simpliciter. The example was this: smoking cigarettes might be bad for George, but it would not follow that smoking is bad (period). In addition to rejecting this inference, we should also ask a question about its conclusion: what would it even mean to say that smoking is bad? This chapter addresses this question. Doing so should make us realize that Geach, Foot, and Thomson have raised a legitimate question, and one that is not easily answered. Although their diagnosis of what goes awry in talk about absolute goodness is rejected, it is a step forward to feel the force of their argument.
Jie W Weiss and David J Weiss
- Published in print:
- 2008
- Published Online:
- January 2009
- ISBN:
- 9780195322989
- eISBN:
- 9780199869206
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195322989.003.0033
- Subject:
- Psychology, Cognitive Psychology
This chapter presents the first-year results of a two-year study exploring whether a multiattribute utility (MAU) model that includes a new momentary salience parameter can predict smoking and ...
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This chapter presents the first-year results of a two-year study exploring whether a multiattribute utility (MAU) model that includes a new momentary salience parameter can predict smoking and alcohol use among an ethnically diverse Southern California sample of 2,789 seventh graders. The model allowed detailed investigation of the role that perceptions regarding ten anticipated consequences of substance use (e.g., being more popular, feeling more relaxed, contracting a devastating illness in the future) played in the decision to initiate substance use. An important finding of this study was that MAU for tobacco users was on average higher than those for non-users. This result is especially striking because the participants did not articulate their MAUs. Rather, the predictor was obtained by calculations that employed parameters reported by the participants. This success illustrates the power of the “divide and conquer” strategy extolled by Edwards.Less
This chapter presents the first-year results of a two-year study exploring whether a multiattribute utility (MAU) model that includes a new momentary salience parameter can predict smoking and alcohol use among an ethnically diverse Southern California sample of 2,789 seventh graders. The model allowed detailed investigation of the role that perceptions regarding ten anticipated consequences of substance use (e.g., being more popular, feeling more relaxed, contracting a devastating illness in the future) played in the decision to initiate substance use. An important finding of this study was that MAU for tobacco users was on average higher than those for non-users. This result is especially striking because the participants did not articulate their MAUs. Rather, the predictor was obtained by calculations that employed parameters reported by the participants. This success illustrates the power of the “divide and conquer” strategy extolled by Edwards.
Virginia Berridge
- Published in print:
- 2007
- Published Online:
- September 2007
- ISBN:
- 9780199260300
- eISBN:
- 9780191717376
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199260300.003.0005
- Subject:
- History, British and Irish Modern History
This chapter discusses the significance of the publication of the second Royal College of Physicians report Smoking and Health Now in 1971. The report led to the a cross-governmental enquiry into ...
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This chapter discusses the significance of the publication of the second Royal College of Physicians report Smoking and Health Now in 1971. The report led to the a cross-governmental enquiry into smoking policy, which led to new relationships between government and the medical profession on health issues, and also a new emphasis on rational approaches to policy making and on the role of evidence within government. The report also made the wider economic argument central to any discussion of the new public health.Less
This chapter discusses the significance of the publication of the second Royal College of Physicians report Smoking and Health Now in 1971. The report led to the a cross-governmental enquiry into smoking policy, which led to new relationships between government and the medical profession on health issues, and also a new emphasis on rational approaches to policy making and on the role of evidence within government. The report also made the wider economic argument central to any discussion of the new public health.
Richard Doll
- Published in print:
- 2010
- Published Online:
- September 2010
- ISBN:
- 9780199566655
- eISBN:
- 9780191594410
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199566655.003.0001
- Subject:
- Public Health and Epidemiology, Public Health, Epidemiology
This chapter begins with a discussion of the development of tobacco smoking and the factors leading to the shift to the fashion for cigarettes. It then discusses the impact of tobacco on health, the ...
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This chapter begins with a discussion of the development of tobacco smoking and the factors leading to the shift to the fashion for cigarettes. It then discusses the impact of tobacco on health, the spread of the smoking epidemic, and future expectations for countries with increased cigarette consumption.Less
This chapter begins with a discussion of the development of tobacco smoking and the factors leading to the shift to the fashion for cigarettes. It then discusses the impact of tobacco on health, the spread of the smoking epidemic, and future expectations for countries with increased cigarette consumption.
Ilse Hoffmann and Dietrich Hoffmann
- Published in print:
- 2010
- Published Online:
- September 2010
- ISBN:
- 9780199566655
- eISBN:
- 9780191594410
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199566655.003.0006
- Subject:
- Public Health and Epidemiology, Public Health, Epidemiology
This chapter discusses the identification of carcinogens and tumour promoters in tobacco smoke, changes in cigarette smoke composition with various design changes, and observations on cigarette ...
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This chapter discusses the identification of carcinogens and tumour promoters in tobacco smoke, changes in cigarette smoke composition with various design changes, and observations on cigarette smokers. Major modifications in the make-up of the commercial cigarette were introduced between 1950 and 1975, but since that time there have been few substantive changes toward a further reduction of the toxic and carcinogenic potential of cigarette smoke. A variety of changes in cigarette design and filtration have resulted in chemical changes in cigarette smoke, some of which have demonstrated decreased toxicity in animal assays. Changes in the agricultural, curing, and manufacturing processes of cigarettes have increased the amounts of tobacco-specific nitrosamines in cigarette smoke. These changes are considered to have contributed to the increase in adenocarcinoma of the lung observed over the past several decades.Less
This chapter discusses the identification of carcinogens and tumour promoters in tobacco smoke, changes in cigarette smoke composition with various design changes, and observations on cigarette smokers. Major modifications in the make-up of the commercial cigarette were introduced between 1950 and 1975, but since that time there have been few substantive changes toward a further reduction of the toxic and carcinogenic potential of cigarette smoke. A variety of changes in cigarette design and filtration have resulted in chemical changes in cigarette smoke, some of which have demonstrated decreased toxicity in animal assays. Changes in the agricultural, curing, and manufacturing processes of cigarettes have increased the amounts of tobacco-specific nitrosamines in cigarette smoke. These changes are considered to have contributed to the increase in adenocarcinoma of the lung observed over the past several decades.
Jonathan M. Samet
- Published in print:
- 2010
- Published Online:
- September 2010
- ISBN:
- 9780199566655
- eISBN:
- 9780191594410
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199566655.003.0016
- Subject:
- Public Health and Epidemiology, Public Health, Epidemiology
This chapter provides an overview and introduction to the now vast data on the adverse health consequences of passive smoking, covering the risks to passive smokers, including the fetus, infants and ...
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This chapter provides an overview and introduction to the now vast data on the adverse health consequences of passive smoking, covering the risks to passive smokers, including the fetus, infants and children, and adults. In about three decades, progression has been made from the first studies on passive smoking and health to definitive evidence that passive smoking causes disease. The evidence derives from not only epidemiological studies, but studies with biomarkers documenting that tobacco smoke inhaled by non-smokers delivers doses of toxic components and metabolites to target organs. There are also animal studies and extensive data on patterns of exposure. The strength of the evidence and its public health implications have been a strong force for motivating tobacco control policy.Less
This chapter provides an overview and introduction to the now vast data on the adverse health consequences of passive smoking, covering the risks to passive smokers, including the fetus, infants and children, and adults. In about three decades, progression has been made from the first studies on passive smoking and health to definitive evidence that passive smoking causes disease. The evidence derives from not only epidemiological studies, but studies with biomarkers documenting that tobacco smoke inhaled by non-smokers delivers doses of toxic components and metabolites to target organs. There are also animal studies and extensive data on patterns of exposure. The strength of the evidence and its public health implications have been a strong force for motivating tobacco control policy.
Amanda Amos and Judith Mackay
- Published in print:
- 2010
- Published Online:
- September 2010
- ISBN:
- 9780199566655
- eISBN:
- 9780191594410
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199566655.003.0018
- Subject:
- Public Health and Epidemiology, Public Health, Epidemiology
This chapter begins with a review of global trends in women and smoking. It then discusses the health effects of tobacco use, the economic impact of tobacco use on women, smoking cessation among ...
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This chapter begins with a review of global trends in women and smoking. It then discusses the health effects of tobacco use, the economic impact of tobacco use on women, smoking cessation among women, and the marketing of tobacco to women. At the beginning of the 20th century few people could have imagined how such a stigmatized behaviour as female smoking would be transformed, through judicious marketing by the tobacco companies, into a socially acceptable and desirable behaviour in high-income countries. The challenge facing us in the 21st century is to how stem the second wave of the tobacco epidemic, particularly in low- and middle-income countries and among disadvantaged women in high-income countries.Less
This chapter begins with a review of global trends in women and smoking. It then discusses the health effects of tobacco use, the economic impact of tobacco use on women, smoking cessation among women, and the marketing of tobacco to women. At the beginning of the 20th century few people could have imagined how such a stigmatized behaviour as female smoking would be transformed, through judicious marketing by the tobacco companies, into a socially acceptable and desirable behaviour in high-income countries. The challenge facing us in the 21st century is to how stem the second wave of the tobacco epidemic, particularly in low- and middle-income countries and among disadvantaged women in high-income countries.
Areti Lagiou and Dimitrios Trichopoulos
- Published in print:
- 2010
- Published Online:
- September 2010
- ISBN:
- 9780199566655
- eISBN:
- 9780191594410
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199566655.003.0028
- Subject:
- Public Health and Epidemiology, Public Health, Epidemiology
This chapter reviews studies on the link between smoking and breast cancer. There is little evidence that passive smoking increases the risk of breast cancer, although this possibility cannot be ...
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This chapter reviews studies on the link between smoking and breast cancer. There is little evidence that passive smoking increases the risk of breast cancer, although this possibility cannot be rejected. The problem reflects the more general issue of distinguishing a null association from a weakly positive one on the basis of epidemiological evidence alone. With respect to active smoking, the overall epidemiological evidence is weak. There are findings, however, suggestive of interaction of this exposure with early age at exposure and nulliparity, when the mammary gland is not adequately differentiated. There are also reports that active smoking modifies the spectrum of p53 mutations in breast tumours and interacts with particular genetic polymorphisms. These findings cannot be explained by simple forms of selection or information bias but they may still reflect chance or selective reporting. If they were to be replicated and further supported by epidemiological results, these results would indicate that active smoking does affect breast cancer risk. At this stage, and if one were to adopt the International Agency for Research on Cancer terminology concerning the evaluation of carcinogenicity, the likely verdict on active smoking in relation to breast cancer risk would be that it is a ‘possible’ carcinogen.Less
This chapter reviews studies on the link between smoking and breast cancer. There is little evidence that passive smoking increases the risk of breast cancer, although this possibility cannot be rejected. The problem reflects the more general issue of distinguishing a null association from a weakly positive one on the basis of epidemiological evidence alone. With respect to active smoking, the overall epidemiological evidence is weak. There are findings, however, suggestive of interaction of this exposure with early age at exposure and nulliparity, when the mammary gland is not adequately differentiated. There are also reports that active smoking modifies the spectrum of p53 mutations in breast tumours and interacts with particular genetic polymorphisms. These findings cannot be explained by simple forms of selection or information bias but they may still reflect chance or selective reporting. If they were to be replicated and further supported by epidemiological results, these results would indicate that active smoking does affect breast cancer risk. At this stage, and if one were to adopt the International Agency for Research on Cancer terminology concerning the evaluation of carcinogenicity, the likely verdict on active smoking in relation to breast cancer risk would be that it is a ‘possible’ carcinogen.
Michael Lobban
- Published in print:
- 2010
- Published Online:
- May 2010
- ISBN:
- 9780199258826
- eISBN:
- 9780191705168
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199258826.003.0025
- Subject:
- Law, Legal History
While there had always been problems caused by smoke, or by polluted water, noise or overcrowding, they were significantly magnified in the 19th century as a result of rapid industrialization and ...
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While there had always been problems caused by smoke, or by polluted water, noise or overcrowding, they were significantly magnified in the 19th century as a result of rapid industrialization and urbanization. All cities suffered severely from coal smoke emitted by domestic fires and steam engines. Many suffered from poisonous chemical fumes emitted by new industries such as alkali production and copper smelting. Urban development also brought other irritants, as when brick kilns filled residential areas with smoke when new houses were built, or when new buildings blocked the light of established householders. Although the major environmental problems caused by urbanization could ultimately only be dealt with by legislation and regulation, the common law continued to play an important role. To begin with, those responsible for nuisances could be indicted. To be subject to prosecution, the nuisance had to be a general annoyance to the public, rather than a harm to particular individuals only. This chapter discusses cases relating to the right to light, water rights, smoke and noise, and remedies.Less
While there had always been problems caused by smoke, or by polluted water, noise or overcrowding, they were significantly magnified in the 19th century as a result of rapid industrialization and urbanization. All cities suffered severely from coal smoke emitted by domestic fires and steam engines. Many suffered from poisonous chemical fumes emitted by new industries such as alkali production and copper smelting. Urban development also brought other irritants, as when brick kilns filled residential areas with smoke when new houses were built, or when new buildings blocked the light of established householders. Although the major environmental problems caused by urbanization could ultimately only be dealt with by legislation and regulation, the common law continued to play an important role. To begin with, those responsible for nuisances could be indicted. To be subject to prosecution, the nuisance had to be a general annoyance to the public, rather than a harm to particular individuals only. This chapter discusses cases relating to the right to light, water rights, smoke and noise, and remedies.
Virgil Ho
- Published in print:
- 2005
- Published Online:
- February 2006
- ISBN:
- 9780199282715
- eISBN:
- 9780191603037
- Item type:
- book
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/0199282714.001.0001
- Subject:
- Economics and Finance, Economic History
This book critically examines six aspects of the popular culture of early and mid-Republican (1912-38) Canton: common perceptions of the city, popular attitudes towards the West, Cantonese opera, ...
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This book critically examines six aspects of the popular culture of early and mid-Republican (1912-38) Canton: common perceptions of the city, popular attitudes towards the West, Cantonese opera, opium smoking, gambling, and prostitution. Misunderstandings and biased assumptions about these social phenomena as portrayed in much contemporary as well as present-day official or ‘socially conscientious’ literature are redressed. Contemporary folk materials reveal that the common people were much more pro-Western than xenophobic in attitude; the alleged social and political ‘calamities’ of gambling, opium consumption, and prostitution were more rhetorical than real; the socio-cultural status of the city has surpassed that of the countryside; and the commercialization and Westernization of Cantonese opera was much less straightforward or complete than its critics argued.Less
This book critically examines six aspects of the popular culture of early and mid-Republican (1912-38) Canton: common perceptions of the city, popular attitudes towards the West, Cantonese opera, opium smoking, gambling, and prostitution. Misunderstandings and biased assumptions about these social phenomena as portrayed in much contemporary as well as present-day official or ‘socially conscientious’ literature are redressed. Contemporary folk materials reveal that the common people were much more pro-Western than xenophobic in attitude; the alleged social and political ‘calamities’ of gambling, opium consumption, and prostitution were more rhetorical than real; the socio-cultural status of the city has surpassed that of the countryside; and the commercialization and Westernization of Cantonese opera was much less straightforward or complete than its critics argued.
Virginia Berridge and Alex Mold
- Published in print:
- 2011
- Published Online:
- January 2013
- ISBN:
- 9780197264829
- eISBN:
- 9780191754036
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- British Academy
- DOI:
- 10.5871/bacad/9780197264829.003.0006
- Subject:
- History, British and Irish Modern History
This chapter explores the heightened professionalism of the voluntary sector as it adapted to the emergence of a new form of activist, as a way of analysing the utility of different methodological ...
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This chapter explores the heightened professionalism of the voluntary sector as it adapted to the emergence of a new form of activist, as a way of analysing the utility of different methodological approaches. Using the case-study of voluntary action around smoking and illegal drugs, it demonstrates that the distinctions between old and new politics, between insider and outsider groups, simply ‘melt away’ when closely examined. Instead, the chapter pays attention on the ‘in between spaces’ of the oppositional models, where organisations merged counter-cultural presentation and thought with more traditional pressure-group and service-provision activity, and combined policy challenge with partnership-working, a balancing act enabled by a surprisingly permissive statutory funding regime.Less
This chapter explores the heightened professionalism of the voluntary sector as it adapted to the emergence of a new form of activist, as a way of analysing the utility of different methodological approaches. Using the case-study of voluntary action around smoking and illegal drugs, it demonstrates that the distinctions between old and new politics, between insider and outsider groups, simply ‘melt away’ when closely examined. Instead, the chapter pays attention on the ‘in between spaces’ of the oppositional models, where organisations merged counter-cultural presentation and thought with more traditional pressure-group and service-provision activity, and combined policy challenge with partnership-working, a balancing act enabled by a surprisingly permissive statutory funding regime.
Wakefield Melanie
- Published in print:
- 2010
- Published Online:
- September 2010
- ISBN:
- 9780199566655
- eISBN:
- 9780191594410
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199566655.003.0004
- Subject:
- Public Health and Epidemiology, Public Health, Epidemiology
The tobacco industry has been spectacularly successful in marketing its products over a long period of time. Advertising campaigns for cigarette brands such as Marlboro, Benson & Hedges, Winston, ...
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The tobacco industry has been spectacularly successful in marketing its products over a long period of time. Advertising campaigns for cigarette brands such as Marlboro, Benson & Hedges, Winston, Camel, and Lucky Strike have garnered positions in the top 100 list of all advertising campaigns. A distinguishing feature of tobacco industry marketing is that, rather than relying on traditional avenues such as television, radio, and print media, a full range of advertising and promotional opportunities has been used. This chapter first examines the gradual move by tobacco companies from measured media towards other marketing communications. It then focuses on two tobacco marketing communications of prime importance: point-of-sale marketing and tobacco packaging. The final section considers corporate social responsibility programmes and youth smoking prevention programmes, which have emerged as traditional avenues for advertising have been closed, or have threatened to be limited by tobacco control legislation or legal agreements.Less
The tobacco industry has been spectacularly successful in marketing its products over a long period of time. Advertising campaigns for cigarette brands such as Marlboro, Benson & Hedges, Winston, Camel, and Lucky Strike have garnered positions in the top 100 list of all advertising campaigns. A distinguishing feature of tobacco industry marketing is that, rather than relying on traditional avenues such as television, radio, and print media, a full range of advertising and promotional opportunities has been used. This chapter first examines the gradual move by tobacco companies from measured media towards other marketing communications. It then focuses on two tobacco marketing communications of prime importance: point-of-sale marketing and tobacco packaging. The final section considers corporate social responsibility programmes and youth smoking prevention programmes, which have emerged as traditional avenues for advertising have been closed, or have threatened to be limited by tobacco control legislation or legal agreements.
Stephen S. Hecht
- Published in print:
- 2010
- Published Online:
- September 2010
- ISBN:
- 9780199566655
- eISBN:
- 9780191594410
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199566655.003.0007
- Subject:
- Public Health and Epidemiology, Public Health, Epidemiology
The indisputable relationship between the world's most widespread exogenous chemical carcinogen exposure — tobacco smoke — and cancer, provides a framework for a better understanding of cancer ...
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The indisputable relationship between the world's most widespread exogenous chemical carcinogen exposure — tobacco smoke — and cancer, provides a framework for a better understanding of cancer mechanisms in general, particularly the interaction between carcinogen exposure and host factors, and for the development of novel preventive and therapeutic strategies. Furthermore, the biomarkers that are developed in this research can be applied in the approaching era of tobacco product regulation. This chapter discusses the mechanisms of tumour induction by tobacco carcinogens and the status of tobacco carcinogen biomarkers.Less
The indisputable relationship between the world's most widespread exogenous chemical carcinogen exposure — tobacco smoke — and cancer, provides a framework for a better understanding of cancer mechanisms in general, particularly the interaction between carcinogen exposure and host factors, and for the development of novel preventive and therapeutic strategies. Furthermore, the biomarkers that are developed in this research can be applied in the approaching era of tobacco product regulation. This chapter discusses the mechanisms of tumour induction by tobacco carcinogens and the status of tobacco carcinogen biomarkers.
