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This chapter presents the history of research into skill acquisition, and reviews the key questions and theories that have framed this research. Issues include the existence of plateaus in learning curves, the effects of part versus whole task training and massed versus distributed practice, knowledge of results, the form of learning curves and their mathematical description, the power law of practice, transfer of training, and phases of skill acquisition. Theories reviewed are divided up into those that propose that skill acquisition proceeds through a process of strategy refinement (e.g., the theories of Crossman, Anderson (ACT-R), Newell et al. (SOAR), and MacKay, as well as some connectionist theories) as opposed to those that propose that skilled performance results from improved memory retrieval (e.g., the theories of Logan (Instance theory) and Palmeri (EBRW)). The theories are evaluated in terms of their ability to provide accounts versus explanations of the power law of practice.

This chapter presents a number of challenges for research into skill acquisition and transfer. In particular, a range of factors are considered that can determine whether a skill will be generalizable beyond the conditions of training, or specific to these conditions, including the nature of the task under consideration and the nature of the training programme. The effect of transfer of training on the shape of learning curves is also discussed, starting with a comprehensive review of the account provided in Anderson's ACT* theory of the determiners of learning rate. Consideration is then given to the effect on learning rate of performing a task that involves component skills with varying practice histories. A number of conclusions are stated about this effect: when a task involves old and new components, the task will be learned at a slower rate than that at which each of the two sets of components improves. The amount by which this learning rate will be attenuated will be moderated by the relative number of processing steps between old and new components of the task, and by the amount of practice that the old skills had prior to learning the new task. Learning curves that represent improved performance on a task are thus suggested to reflect summaries of learning curves of component skills. Some evidence in the research literature in support of these predictions is presented. The chapter concludes with a discussion of the influence context effects and individual differences can have on learning curves.

This introductory chapter begins the case for how behaviour can be understood with just a small number of learning principles. Firstly the notion of learning curves is introduced, and common misunderstandings about learning curves are debunked. A problem with modern cognitive psychology is identified — that many theories exist that attempt to explain behaviour by positing systems in the head, but rarely do these theories attempt to describe the origin of these systems. Hence, many theories are merely re-descriptions of behavioural phenomena rather than explanations. The notions of skill and skill acquisition are clarified, and an overview is provided of standard skill acquisition empirical findings and relevant theories. The transfer of skill is also discussed, with an introduction to the theory presented throughout the book — the Component Theory of Skill Acquisition. The chapter concludes with an overview of the remainder of the book, and sketches a solution to the problem of cognitive psychology: that learning should be included as a key ingredient in any explanation of behaviour. A series of criteria are suggested for evaluating theories of skill acquisition.

This chapter tests the Component Theory of Skill Acquisition against phenomena reported in relation to the mental lexicon. Research on repetition priming with tasks such lexical decision is reviewed, as are theories of priming, and concepts, debates, and variables underlying the existing paradigm, such as single and double dissociation, modularity, age of acquisition, word frequency, and the innateness of language. The ability of a skill acquisition account to explain lexical data is considered, resulting in the conclusion that practice and transfer effects are similar in lexical and skill acquisition domains, supporting the existence of universal principles of learning. This argument is further developed with the proposal that the nature of a person's mental lexicon reflects their experiences with the linguistic world, and so should exhibit the distributional characteristics of this world. Evidence in support of this claim is presented, including work by Kirby, Zipf, and new data extracted from databases of word usage. The Component Theory of Skill Acquisition is assessed as providing a satisfactory account of lexical phenomena. However, at this point in the book, the theory is still missing a mechanism that would indicate how a lexicon might work. The beginnings of a proposal for such a mechanism are provided in the final sections of the chapter, where the work of Halloy on complex adaptive systems is introduced.

This chapter further develops the Component Theory of Skill Acquisition. Halloy's theory of complex systems is used as inspiration for proposing a mechanism whereby practice on a task affects distributions of memory representations relating to successful experiences with the task. This mechanism is shown to provide a satisfactory explanation of the five principles of learning identified in Chapter 4, as well as being consistent with various biological, evolutionary, and physical laws. A number of implications of the complete Component Theory are presented for the field of skill acquisition, the design of training programmes, and psychology as a scientific discipline. A number of recommendations are made for how psychological science should proceed, with respect to data collection and theorizing, as well as theoretical paths not to follow (biologically determined critical periods, innateness explanations). The book concludes by claiming that the solution to the problem of Cognitive Psychology identified in Chapter 1 is that learning underlies much of cognitive phenomena, and the way this occurs is described in the Component Theory of Skill Acquisition.

This chapter addresses some of the shortcomings of the research and theories of skill acquisition and transfer with the proposal of a new theory. Five principles of learning are presented, which were derived from the research reviewed in previous chapters. These principles are: practice leads to faster performance; practice leads to efficiencies in knowledge access; learning leads to less demand on working memory; as expertise increases, fewer mental resources are required to perform a particular task, enabling the development of a hierarchy of skills; and mastery in a domain involves the application of an array of component processes, with varying degrees of specificity to tasks and contexts, that are recruited in a manner that allows for consistent performance under stereotypical situations and flexible performance under unusual circumstances. The Component Theory of Skill Acquisition is described, followed by presentation of a number of implications of the theory for existing accounts of empirical phenomena in skill acquisition and transfer specifically, and cognitive psychology in general.

This chapter sums up some of the research in skill acquisition, which stresses the environmental aspects of music learning, especially in learning to play an instrument. Research in the acquisition of complex everyday skills has favored expert performance as an object of study. The focus on extremely gifted children and musical prodigies is less interesting to educators, who are not commonly confronted with these rare children. Other educationally important aspects of skill acquisition and display that await further investigation are musical creativity and performance. The most important characteristic of research in skill acquisition and human performance is that this research opens up an optimistic view for educators because it does not focus on innate abilities.

This chapter first provides an overview of the various stages of cognitive skill acquisition in order to situate learning from worked-out examples in the course of learning a new skill. It then defines more precisely the meaning of learning from worked-out examples, provides reasons for its effectiveness, and discusses the relevance of self-explanations and instructional explanations as factors moderating the effectiveness of studying examples. It discusses the problem of structuring the transition from studying examples to problem solving. It describes a preliminary instructional model of example-based skill acquisition that currently guides our research. Finally, it outlines a set of research questions intended to guide future research, such as adapting the proposed fading procedure to individual learners.

The theoretical and empirical evidence of the economic effects of affirmative action or quota (positive discrimination) programmes for minority racial groups in the USA, and of reservations of government jobs for scheduled castes and tribes in India, are compared and discussed. The focus is on the effects on wages and employment in the labour market as well as on the acquisition of skills. Consideration is also given to how the dynamics of collective action may turn these programmes, which were designed to be temporary and limited in scope, into larger, more permanent ones.

This chapter reviews the literature evidencing that motor imagery and observation can modulate skill. It considers the neuroscientific processes thought to be involved in physical movement skill acquisition and modulation. It evaluates the case for movement imagery and observation, supporting change within the neuronal system through similar processes.

Variability is a ubiquitous characteristic in even highly skilled performance, and it can serve as a useful window into the determinants of skill acquisition and control. Variability is specifically informative when a task is redundant (i.e., the same result can be obtained in many different ways). This chapter discusses a novel analysis technique which has been developed for redundant tasks that parses observed variability into three components: tolerance, noise, and covariation. Three experiments addressed the following questions: What aspects of variability decrease with practice? Are actors sensitive to their intrinsic noise in selecting strategies? For all experiments, a throwing task served as the model system. Using a virtual set-up, subjects threw a pendular projectile in a simulated concentric force field to hit a target. The movement was experimentally constrained such that only two variables, angle and velocity of ball release, fully determined the projectile's trajectory and thereby the accuracy of the throw. While leaving the task redundant, this simplification facilitated analysis and decomposition of variability.

This chapter begins by discussing how learning to play the piano changes the brain. An experiment is shown which correlate skill acquisition with changes in motor cortical output. It is demonstrated that acquisition of the necessary motor skills to perform a five-finger movement exercise correctly is associated with reorganization in the cortical motor outputs to the muscles involved in the task. A discussion on mental practice is also provided. The chapter then explores the sensorimotor mismatch and task-induced dystonia. The motor cortex plays an important role in motor skill learning, but so does the sensory cortex. The sensorimotor cortex changes as a consequence of skill acquisition. The data of the studies may be useful in understanding not only the physiology of skill acquisitions, but also the pathophysiology of movement disorders in skilled performers.

Giftedness researchers have long debated whether there is empirical evidence to support a distinction between giftedness and attained level of achievement. In this paper we propose a general theoretical framework that establishes scientific criteria for acceptable evidence of superior reproducible performance, which any theory of exceptional performance must explain. We review evidence for superior reproducible performance, generally emerging only after extended periods of deliberate practice that result in subsequent physiological adaptations and complex cognitive mechanisms. We also apply this framework to examine proposed evidence for innate talents. With the exception of fixed genetic factors determining body size and height, we were unable to find evidence for innate constraints to the attainment of elite achievement for healthy individuals.

The forces behind the operation of the labor market and real wage increases in South Korea are examined. It is argued that in industries in which the technology transfer problem was fairly complicated and in which Korea lacked experience, workers were paid relatively high wages, not because of a shortage of particular skills, but in order to induce them to exercise their intelligence and make imported technology work. The wage rate in Korea was driven up especially fast by the exigencies of learning because the learning experience was especially intense since it was undertaken by local rather than foreign firms, happened in a great spurt, and occurred in large, bureaucratic enterprises. Business was also pressured by government to share its wealth with labor. Because scarcity and demand alone cannot explain the operation of the labor market, the chapter ends with a discussion of the imperatives of technology and the skill set of late industrialization that have driven big businesses to pay more.

The accusations in Gagnés (this volume) chapter are addressed and discussed. More importantly, this chapter describes the detailed differences between our two theoretical frameworks. Our theoretical framework is based on deliberate practice and focus on evidence that practice can dramatically influence the development of children, adolescents, and adults, when the individuals engage in the designed practice for hours on a daily basis for months, years, and decades. In contrast, Gagné emphasizes the role of innate genetic differences and informal exercise. Once we accept the overwhelming evidence for genetic control of individual differences in height and body size, our empirical review has not uncovered rigorous scientific evidence that meets our standards and demonstrates conclusively that innate talent (gifts) are necessary for attaining expert performance. Based on the same standards Gagnés anecdotal evidence from laypersons is rejected. The chapter concludes with an outline for how giftedness can be studied with the same rigorous scientific methods used for studying expert performance.

Older adults are slower to acquire new cognitive skills requiring a shift from controlled (algorithmic) processing to automatic responding based on retrieving newly unitized information from memory. Research demonstrates that older adults’ delayed retrieval shift is a strategic avoidance of relying on memory when doing so would be successful, not just a function of age-related slowing in rates of associative learning. Older adults’ retrieval avoidance can be reduced by financial incentives to respond rapidly, recognition probes that demonstrate the accessibility of correct information, and other experimental manipulations. Item-level strategy reports show an exponential rise in retrieval strategy use with practice but not for all participants. A proportion of the older samples are retrieval strategy avoidant across the entire course of skill acquisition task practice. The chapter comments on the motivational nature of retrieval strategy avoidance and the possible practical consequences of a retrieval avoidance mode for older adults.