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The paucity of cultural finds at this key stage in human prehistory increases the need to fully and effectively exploit all the sources of evidence that exist. Organic residues, preserved in association with skeletal remains and pottery, have the potential to provide various levels of information relating to diet and subsistence, and thus the wider interactions of ancient humans with their environment. This chapter explores the potential to enhance the rigour and level of information retrievable from the biochemical constituents of skeletal remains and pottery by exploiting new sources of molecular and isotopic information. It addresses the following possibilities: (i) deriving palaeodietary information from human remains via the complementary use of amino acid and lipid components; and (ii) assessing terrestrial and marine contributions to organic residues preserved in skeletal remains and pottery.

This chapter discusses the history of paleopathology in the UK (England, Wales, Scotland, and Northern Ireland). Paleopathology is considered a field within bioarchaeology, which is the study of human remains from archaeological sites with emphasis upon archaeological and historical contextualization. The chapter focuses on the study of skeletal and cremated human remains with few references to the more complete bog bodies. It covers the following periods: the early years (late nineteenth to the mid-twentieth centuries), milestones of the 1950s–1980s, and from the 1980s onward. It also considers developments in paleopathology training, data recording standards, databases, skeletal collections, and research funding.

This chapter discusses the history of paleopathology in Southeast Asia. The discipline of paleopathology in the region has a short history, which is reflected in the limited availability of human skeletal remains for analysis due to the relatively late development and sporadic history of archaeology. Despite early archaeological activity by nineteenth-century European colonists in countries such as French Indochine, Malaysia, Burma, Indonesia, Philippines, and Taiwan, a perception persisted until the 1970s among Western scholars that Southeast Asia was rather a late developer, with its position at a crossroads between the major civilizations of India and China resulting in the development of an “Indo-Chinese amalgam” rather than deserving of rigorous research in its own right. Until the mid-twentieth century, research on available human skeletal remains focused on the interminable exercise of morphological description with the aim of creating a human taxonomy.

This chapter discusses the history of paleopathology in Japan, which dates back more than 110 years. The oldest publication focused on syphilitic bone changes in Ainu skeletal remains (Koganei 1894). This early period (1890 to 1920) in the history of paleopathological was characterized by the introduction of the term “paleopathology” and the descriptions of lesions seen in skeletal remains of people of the Stone Age (14,000 BC: 300 BC), including trauma, benign osteomas, and osteoarthritis. In the post-World War II era the history of paleopathology was marked by an emphasis on trauma and its relationship to Japan's past. From the 1970s onward, studies in paleopathology have extended beyond exploring trauma to a wide spectrum of pathological conditions, including malignant bone tumors and specific infections, particularly tuberculosis, syphilis, and leprosy, congenital diseases, diseases associated with aging, and “stress” markers.

This chapter discusses the history of paleopathology in Hungary. The study of pathological alterations in skeletal remains from various time periods can be traced back for nearly a century. Thus, the scope of paleopathological research has been extensive. To provide a better overview, the discussion is divided into sections—a larger section for the early years followed by sections focused on the decades of the second half of the twentieth century.

This chapter by Estelle Lazer discusses the health of Pompeii’s population based on the skeletal remains found on site. It offers a critical discussion of this massively complicated dataset, which has been badly preserved and was badly recorded by the excavators, and argues that it is still possible to use Pompeian bones to extract some basic indicators about the health of Pompeii’s AD 79 population, particularly concerning dental health, stature, and diseases that leave their mark on bones. Lazer cautiously suggests that the evidence allows for a more optimistic view of the health of the Pompeian population than some scholars have suggested in the past. In particular, the evidence suggests that a significant number of Pompeians was living well into old age.

This chapter presents the results of a study of skeletal remains from three Late Mesolithic and Middle Neolithic sites in the Netherlands. The remains revealed evidence for interpersonal violence. Injuries were inflicted either ante-mortem or peri-mortem and affected two male individuals from burials and one adult represented by an isolated bone. The manner of burial differed from the normal burial ritual. Isotope analyses show that these individuals were local, although non-locals were also represented in the osteological record. Explanations for the violent actions involved may be related to individual conflict or organized fights between groups.

This chapter presents research on the controversial Late LBK enclosure at Herxheim in southwest Germany. Early interpretations of the human bone assemblage from the site emphasized the presence of violent injuries to the many crania recovered in the enclosure ditches. This interpretation was subsequently modified, with the fractures being seen as post-mortem modifications undertaken as part of a secondary mortuary ritual. Debate over the site has recently been rekindled by the suggestion that at least part of the assemblage provides evidence for cannibalism. Research results indicate that skeletal remains from Herxheim do not yield any evidence of a general crisis at the end of the Linear Pottery Culture or of a violent conflict being the origins of the skeletal accumulation. Existing facts also make it impossible to prove mass cannibalism.

In agency-based archaeology, a theoretical trend fosters a great interest in how the human body serves as a venue for negotiating and expressing social identity. Archaeological evidence may thus be used as a means for deducing relevant information when adopting a diachronic point of view. Utilizing this approach proves to be effective in looking at the various aspects of body image from the Early Postclassic Sapoá phase site's material culture found in Santa Isabel, Nicaragua. The human body, according to Erica Reisher and Kathryn Koo's review article, served as an agent and as a symbol since it was recognized as a “conduit of social meaning.” A common symbol set is thus needed to decipher the meanings of a symbolic body. This chapter attempts to examine the various aspects of the “body beautiful” in skeletal remains, dress and adornment, and representational art.

This chapter describes the results of research at the site of Cerro la Cruz and presents the most important interpretations derived from this data, answering several central questions regarding life on the frontier, and examining the archaeological evidence for the dynamic movements of frontiers and border zones over time. The function and meaning of the site's compounds are discussed, including the evidence for an internal tripartite division of space. The perimeter walls and other non-compound architectural features are also examined.

This chapter summarizes all dinosaur locations currently known worldwide. Geographic location is based on primary administrative divisions (e.g., states, departments, provinces, counties) of the countries in which dinosaur material has been found. Locations are annotated for lithostratigraphic unit (bed, formation, group, series), faunal composition, and stratigraphic horizon. The members of the fauna are present in rank order, roughly based on their phylogenetic relationships. The chapter also includes locations yielding skeletal remains and those that have produced tracks and/or trackways, as well as locations where eggs and eggshell fragments have been found.

This chapter presents a biographical sketch of Calvin Percival Bamfylde Wells. This is followed by a discussion of his contributions to paleopathology. Wells was a key pioneer for the development of paleopathology in the UK. He had more than 130 publications to his name (1955 to 2006). He did not restrict himself only to inhumed human skeletal remains, as he also dealt with a number of pathological nonhuman remains, mummified remains, and cremated human bone, along with artistic representations of illnesses, surgical instruments, and the treatment of disease. Impressive, however, was the number of skeletal reports he completed for archaeologists (approximately fifty), including for the large Romano-British cemetery at Cirencester, Gloucestershire (1982).

This chapter revisits the paradigm-shifting Early Neolithic mass grave at Talheim, southwest Germany, dating from ca. 5000 cal BC. The discussion focuses on the sequence of events which led to the massacre of a whole community as well as morphological and isotopic evidence that has helped researchers to decipher kinship structures within this group of thirty-four men, women, and children. The nature of the burial and the demographic profile of the Talheim mass grave suggests that aggressors came not simply to plunder and pillage but to replace the local community and take over their resources.

This chapter presents a biographical sketch of David Birkett. This is followed by a discussion of his contributions to paleopathology. Like many medical practitioners who find themselves working in paleopathology, often the work they did in paleopathology comprised producing skeletal reports for archaeologists who had excavated cemeteries. Birkett worked with Professor Rosemary Cramp at Durham University, gave lectures to students in the Department of Archaeology on paleopathology, and worked on the medieval skeletal remains from The Hirsel, Coldstream in the Scottish borders. He also worked, along with Robin Daniels of Tees Archaeology, on skeletons from a Franciscan Church in Hartlepool, Cleveland. Here he documents some of the earlier reported examples of diffuse idiopathic skeletal hyperostosis associated with a monastic site before there had been much discussion about the condition and its association with this type of funerary context. He also had a particular interest in osteochondritis dissecans, along with Calvin Wells; he is probably one of the very few people who have documented this condition in paleopathology.

This chapter provides an overview of the global archaeological record for ancient warfare. A growing body of datasets from around the world now documents the existence of conflict and warfare in variable environmental and social contexts, solidifying the notion that prehistoric warfare was of tremendous social importance for many regions. Different definitions of warfare are discussed. This is followed by a detailed analysis of different material signatures for warfare, utilizing examples from archaeological sites and cultures around the world. The chapter concludes with a cursory review of evidence for warfare in Southeast Asia, South Asia, and East Asia. To date, there have been few studies examining the presence and possible significance of prehistoric warfare in Southeast Asia. Although far from conclusive, the indications from pre- and protohistoric records of Southeast Asia and adjacent regions suggest that warfare was not entirely absent.

Research on violence needs to move beyond viewing violence simply as an abhorrent act and develop a means of understanding why violence is a constant in human societies. The intent of this chapter by Ventura R. Pérez is to explore the concept of the “politicization of the dead” which is the notion that human remains become a medium through which the living can manipulate cultural practices and behaviors of their own group or the “other.” The treatment (both at the time of death and after) of the individuals who die as a result of violent encounters then become a crucial indicator of the cultural realities of the group. The value of this approach is that violence is not seen as an isolated act but as the collective practices of the group with meaning that continues on long after death.

This chapter presents the results of a study on traces of violence found on Lithuanian and Latvian Stone Age skeletal materials. Nearly 250 Mesolithic and Neolithic skeletons from Lithuania and Latvia were examined, with the majority deriving from the important multi-period site of Zvejnieki. In general, the overwhelming majority of traumas can be considered as ‘casual’, resulting from everyday activities. Cases of circumscribed inflammatory lesions on skull vaults of five males and one trephination could be a reflection of rituals related to a complex social hierarchy in ‘delayed return’ communities. Only complex sites of settlements and several burials of young males from the Late Bronze Age contain evidence of violent deaths.