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This chapter breaks new ground in dissecting preferential trading arrangements (PTAs) by focusing on rules of origin (ROO), a crucial yet poorly understood market access discipline included in virtually every PTA. It presents a global mapping of the existing ROO regimes, and puts forth an analytical coding scheme for the types of product-specific and regime-wide ROO employed in these regimes. The most immediate contribution of this chapter is to advance the understanding of the ROO regimes around the world, and provide analytical tools for empirical studies on ROO’s economic effects.

Cognitive Grammar represents one approach to cognitive linguistics, which in turn belongs to the functionalist (as opposed to the formalist) tradition in linguistic theory. Its central claim is that grammar is meaningful. More specifically, grammar forms a continuum with lexicon and is fully describable as assemblies of symbolic structures (form-meaning pairings). Lexicon varies with respect to the complexity of expressions and the degree of specifity of the meanings symbolized. Grammar varies along the same dimensions, being distinguished from lexicon primarily on the basis of being more schematic in regard to form as well as meaning. Cognitive Grammar is a usage-based approach, in which linguistic structure is seen as emerging by abstraction from usage events, i.e. the reinforcement of what is common across multiple instances of language use in interactive contexts. The theory is highly restrictive in what is posited, limiting linguistic units to structures that are either directly apprehended as parts of occurring expressions or else derive from such structures by the general cognitive phenomena of schematization and categorization.

Language is both cognitive and sociocultural, consisting in conventionally sanctioned patterns of communicative activity. These patterns take the form of schemas abstracted from usage events by the reinforcement of recurring commonalities. Conventional linguistic units are linked by relationships of composition and categorization (either elaboration or extension) and thus form intersecting networks of great complexity. Expressions are interpreted and assessed for well-formedness through categorization by linguistic units. Through a process of interactive activation, particular units are selected to categorize particular facets of an expression. The total set of categorizing relationships constitutes the expression's structural description, and whether the categorizations involve elaboration or extension determines its degree of conventionality. Despite the absence of explicit prohibitions, this model affords an account of distribution, restrictions, and judgments of ungrammaticality. One aspect of grammatical constructions is their characterization at different levels of specificity, including constructional subschemas incorporating specific lexical items. And since one aspect of lexical items is their occurrence in particular constructions, lexicon and grammar are overlapping rather than disjoint. The model accommodates degrees and kinds of regularity, which decomposes into generality, productivity, and compositionality. Regularities include higher-order generalizations, where sets of categorizations or lexical behaviors are themselves schematized to form productive patterns. Among the phenomena described in this manner are patterns of phonological extension (phonological rules), patterns of semantic extension (e.g. general metonymies), and patterns of morphological realization (like conjugation classes).

Zero, especially under the heading of zero morphemes is one of the ideologically most loaded subjects in theoretical morphology and phonology. However, discussions of the topic suffer from partial terminological confusion since ‘zero morpheme’ is a notion which is not well-defined in realizational theories of morphology, and does hence not make technical sense in any major contemporary approach to morphology since these are all basically realizational. The goal of this chapter is to show that zero exponence is ubiquitous and central in current approaches to exponence with quite subtle differences between different frameworks, and to discuss the main restrictions on zero which have been proposed in the literature.

This chapter charts the battles around the central notions of the Generative/Interpretive Semantics dispute: the existence of Deep Structure (rejected by Generative Semantics, redefined by Interpretive Semantics), the Katz-Postal Principle (rejected by both, in different ways), the notion of grammaticality (distended by Generative Semantics into contingencies and gradations, then rejected; retained by Interpretive Semantics). It also examines the rhetorical maneuvers around George Lakoff’s proposal of global rules (embraced as unfortunately inevitable by Generative Semantics, terminologically rejected but methodologically embraced by Interpretive Semantics). The chapter also documents some of the direct firefights and skirmishes across the Transformational Grammar battlefield, which left Generative Semantics in a position of clear ascendancy.

This chapter studying the liberalization of transport sectors and the effects of infrastructure development in Turkey first studies the opening up of Turkish transport sectors. Noting that barriers to trade of transport services lead to inefficiencies in service sectors and to high costs of services it discusses how protectionist the trade regimes in Turkey and in those of Turkey’s trading partners are. The chapter discusses the World Bank’s new Services Trade Restrictions Database, the OECD’s Services Trade Restrictiveness Index and the OECD’s Indicators of Product Market Regulations database. The chapter quantitatively determines the tariff equivalents of barriers to trade in both Turkey’s transport sectors and in Turkey’s major export markets using the approach developed by Chen and Novy. It analyses the effects of liberalization in Turkey’s transport service sectors and in Turkey’s major trading partners using a computable general equilibrium model and finally discusses the economic impact of infrastructure development.

Relative clause extraposition has been studied by both generativists and functionalists. Whereas generativists have concentrated on structural and semantic factors, such as syntactic locality, definiteness, and restrictiveness, functionalists have investigated surface‐oriented factors, like the length of the relative clause and the distance between it and its antecedent. Most studies, however, have only looked at individual factors and not tried to account for extraposition as a syntactic alternation using an integrated model. This chapter presents a statistical investigation of relative clause extraposition in German that considers multiple competing motivations in order to predict extraposition. It concludes that the decision whether to extrapose a relative clause cannot be attributed to only one factor and that multiple motivations have to be taken into account. It also reports on an acceptability study showing that constraints against extraposition can sometimes be overridden by increasing the antecedent's salience and the predictability of the relative clause.