James W. Cortada
- Published in print:
- 2007
- Published Online:
- January 2008
- ISBN:
- 9780195165869
- eISBN:
- 9780199868025
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195165869.003.0003
- Subject:
- Business and Management, Business History
The US Department of Defense (DoD) is one of the largest users of computers and telecommunications in the world and the largest within the federal government. The story of how the DoD promoted the ...
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The US Department of Defense (DoD) is one of the largest users of computers and telecommunications in the world and the largest within the federal government. The story of how the DoD promoted the development of new computing technologies from the 1940s through the 1990s has been studied by historians. This chapter focuses on the use of computers and telecommunications in order to demonstrate the extent to which this department relied on computing to do its work, and the degree to which its uses of the technology changed how the DoD evolved over time. The organization of the DoD, patterns of research and development, inventory control and logistics, weapons systems and ordnance, training, combat and non-combat applications, information age warfare, and IT deployment are discussed.Less
The US Department of Defense (DoD) is one of the largest users of computers and telecommunications in the world and the largest within the federal government. The story of how the DoD promoted the development of new computing technologies from the 1940s through the 1990s has been studied by historians. This chapter focuses on the use of computers and telecommunications in order to demonstrate the extent to which this department relied on computing to do its work, and the degree to which its uses of the technology changed how the DoD evolved over time. The organization of the DoD, patterns of research and development, inventory control and logistics, weapons systems and ordnance, training, combat and non-combat applications, information age warfare, and IT deployment are discussed.
López Ramón and Michael A. Toman
- Published in print:
- 2006
- Published Online:
- September 2006
- ISBN:
- 9780199298006
- eISBN:
- 9780191603877
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/0199298009.003.0006
- Subject:
- Economics and Finance, Development, Growth, and Environmental
Empirical studies show extraordinarily high rates of return to investments in human and environmental public goods. This chapter demonstrates empirically, however, that the majority of governments in ...
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Empirical studies show extraordinarily high rates of return to investments in human and environmental public goods. This chapter demonstrates empirically, however, that the majority of governments in developing countries fail to invest sufficiently in public goods such as research and development, human capital, and the management of the environment. Such underinvestment causes a major distortion that partially explains the triple curse of slow growth, large social inequities and poverty, and environmental destruction that has typified most developing countries over recent decades. The chapter examines the contribution of IMF and World Bank supported structural adjustment, such as fiscal deficit reduction, privatization of state enterprises, and trade liberalization, in the light of the above framework. Rather than analyzing how each of the reforms may affect the environment, the chapter focuses on whether structural adjustment is likely to correct the under investment in human capital and environmental capital discussed above, and whether there are specific policies within structural adjustment that are likely to particularly affect such under investment.Less
Empirical studies show extraordinarily high rates of return to investments in human and environmental public goods. This chapter demonstrates empirically, however, that the majority of governments in developing countries fail to invest sufficiently in public goods such as research and development, human capital, and the management of the environment. Such underinvestment causes a major distortion that partially explains the triple curse of slow growth, large social inequities and poverty, and environmental destruction that has typified most developing countries over recent decades. The chapter examines the contribution of IMF and World Bank supported structural adjustment, such as fiscal deficit reduction, privatization of state enterprises, and trade liberalization, in the light of the above framework. Rather than analyzing how each of the reforms may affect the environment, the chapter focuses on whether structural adjustment is likely to correct the under investment in human capital and environmental capital discussed above, and whether there are specific policies within structural adjustment that are likely to particularly affect such under investment.
Martin Fransman
- Published in print:
- 1999
- Published Online:
- November 2003
- ISBN:
- 9780198289357
- eISBN:
- 9780191596261
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/0198289359.003.0004
- Subject:
- Economics and Finance, Microeconomics
AT&T, BT, and NTT are the largest telecommunications service providers in the USA, UK, and Japan, respectively, and until the mid‐1980s, the three companies were monopoly suppliers of ...
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AT&T, BT, and NTT are the largest telecommunications service providers in the USA, UK, and Japan, respectively, and until the mid‐1980s, the three companies were monopoly suppliers of telecommunications services in their own national markets. But then all three companies were confronted by similar changes in their environments: more specifically, as a result of changing beliefs on the part of their governments and regulatory authorities, they all faced competition from vigorous new entrants. At the same time, their legal status was changed, with AT&T being divested of and separated from the regional Bell operating companies, and BT and NTT being partly privatized. Simultaneously, the companies had to deal with the maturation of the market for telephone services––the growing importance of new telecommunications services, and the rapid globalization of both service and equipment markets. This chapter looks at: how the three companies have responded to these similar changes in their environment; whether they have constructed similar visions in order to deal with the threats and opportunities resulting from the changes; what differences there are in the strategies developed and in their beliefs regarding the necessary in‐house competences to take advantage of their changing circumstances; and what role should be played by research and development (R&D), and how this should be organized within the company.Less
AT&T, BT, and NTT are the largest telecommunications service providers in the USA, UK, and Japan, respectively, and until the mid‐1980s, the three companies were monopoly suppliers of telecommunications services in their own national markets. But then all three companies were confronted by similar changes in their environments: more specifically, as a result of changing beliefs on the part of their governments and regulatory authorities, they all faced competition from vigorous new entrants. At the same time, their legal status was changed, with AT&T being divested of and separated from the regional Bell operating companies, and BT and NTT being partly privatized. Simultaneously, the companies had to deal with the maturation of the market for telephone services––the growing importance of new telecommunications services, and the rapid globalization of both service and equipment markets. This chapter looks at: how the three companies have responded to these similar changes in their environment; whether they have constructed similar visions in order to deal with the threats and opportunities resulting from the changes; what differences there are in the strategies developed and in their beliefs regarding the necessary in‐house competences to take advantage of their changing circumstances; and what role should be played by research and development (R&D), and how this should be organized within the company.
Vernon W. Ruttan
- Published in print:
- 2006
- Published Online:
- February 2006
- ISBN:
- 9780195188042
- eISBN:
- 9780199783410
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/0195188047.003.0003
- Subject:
- Economics and Finance, Development, Growth, and Environmental
The aircraft industry was unique among modern U.S. manufacturing industries in that a government research and development organization, the National Committee on Aeronautics (NACA), was established ...
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The aircraft industry was unique among modern U.S. manufacturing industries in that a government research and development organization, the National Committee on Aeronautics (NACA), was established prior to U.S. entry into World War I to conduct research on military and commercial aircraft technology and design. NACA made a series of economically important technical and scientific contributions prior to its absorption into the National Aeronautics and Space Agency (NASA) in 1958. Demand for military aircraft during the two world wars played an important role in the development of the aircraft industry and in the transition from the piston-propeller to jet aircraft propulsion system after World War II. The development of a mature commercial jet aircraft technology, epitomized by the Boeing 747 wide-bodied jet, was derivative of a series of military contacts for the design and production by Boeing of a series of military transports.Less
The aircraft industry was unique among modern U.S. manufacturing industries in that a government research and development organization, the National Committee on Aeronautics (NACA), was established prior to U.S. entry into World War I to conduct research on military and commercial aircraft technology and design. NACA made a series of economically important technical and scientific contributions prior to its absorption into the National Aeronautics and Space Agency (NASA) in 1958. Demand for military aircraft during the two world wars played an important role in the development of the aircraft industry and in the transition from the piston-propeller to jet aircraft propulsion system after World War II. The development of a mature commercial jet aircraft technology, epitomized by the Boeing 747 wide-bodied jet, was derivative of a series of military contacts for the design and production by Boeing of a series of military transports.
Marcela Miozzo and Vivien Walsh
- Published in print:
- 2006
- Published Online:
- May 2007
- ISBN:
- 9780199259236
- eISBN:
- 9780191717901
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199259236.003.0002
- Subject:
- Economics and Finance, Economic Systems
This chapter considers the main source of innovation: research and development (R&D) activity. It examines where the inventions and innovations come from in terms of the countries that specialize in ...
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This chapter considers the main source of innovation: research and development (R&D) activity. It examines where the inventions and innovations come from in terms of the countries that specialize in their production, the institutions carrying out R&D, and the institutions which provide the sources of the relevant R&D funding. It examines the evolution of science and technology, from an activity carried out by few people with a private income or an activity sponsored by patrons, to its professionalization and the rise of the in-house corporate R&D laboratory. The amount and nature of government-funded R&D, defence-related R&D, and industrial R&D in different countries are studied.Less
This chapter considers the main source of innovation: research and development (R&D) activity. It examines where the inventions and innovations come from in terms of the countries that specialize in their production, the institutions carrying out R&D, and the institutions which provide the sources of the relevant R&D funding. It examines the evolution of science and technology, from an activity carried out by few people with a private income or an activity sponsored by patrons, to its professionalization and the rise of the in-house corporate R&D laboratory. The amount and nature of government-funded R&D, defence-related R&D, and industrial R&D in different countries are studied.
Albert N. Link and John T. Scott
- Published in print:
- 2010
- Published Online:
- May 2011
- ISBN:
- 9780199729685
- eISBN:
- 9780199894697
- Item type:
- book
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199729685.001.0001
- Subject:
- Economics and Finance, Public and Welfare
This book discusses the systematic application of alternative evaluation methods to estimate the social benefits of publicly-financed research and development (R&D). The book argues that economic ...
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This book discusses the systematic application of alternative evaluation methods to estimate the social benefits of publicly-financed research and development (R&D). The book argues that economic theory should be the guiding criterion for any method of program evaluation because it focuses attention on the value and the opportunity costs of the program. The evaluation methods discussed and illustrated are both economics and, for comparison, non-economics based. The book is motivated by four foundation chapters that discuss government's role in innovation from the perspective of economic theory, review public accountability issues from both a constitutional and an historical perspective, overview systematic approaches to program evaluation, and describe the evaluation metrics typically used. Four case studies illustrate the four alternative evaluation approaches discussed. These case studies are for the U.S. Advanced Technology Program's intramural research awards program, the U.S. National Institute of Standards and Technology's research on wavelength references for optical fiber communications, the U.S. Malcolm Balridge National Quality Award, and the Advanced Technology Program's focused program on the integration of manufacturing applications.Less
This book discusses the systematic application of alternative evaluation methods to estimate the social benefits of publicly-financed research and development (R&D). The book argues that economic theory should be the guiding criterion for any method of program evaluation because it focuses attention on the value and the opportunity costs of the program. The evaluation methods discussed and illustrated are both economics and, for comparison, non-economics based. The book is motivated by four foundation chapters that discuss government's role in innovation from the perspective of economic theory, review public accountability issues from both a constitutional and an historical perspective, overview systematic approaches to program evaluation, and describe the evaluation metrics typically used. Four case studies illustrate the four alternative evaluation approaches discussed. These case studies are for the U.S. Advanced Technology Program's intramural research awards program, the U.S. National Institute of Standards and Technology's research on wavelength references for optical fiber communications, the U.S. Malcolm Balridge National Quality Award, and the Advanced Technology Program's focused program on the integration of manufacturing applications.
David B. Audretsch
- Published in print:
- 2007
- Published Online:
- September 2007
- ISBN:
- 9780195183504
- eISBN:
- 9780199783885
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195183504.003.0008
- Subject:
- Economics and Finance, Development, Growth, and Environmental
The view regarding the role of universities has changed dramatically in the entrepreneurial society. There are several reasons for the emergence of the university as an engine of economic growth. The ...
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The view regarding the role of universities has changed dramatically in the entrepreneurial society. There are several reasons for the emergence of the university as an engine of economic growth. The first is the shift away from the managed economy. A consequence of globalization in the most developed countries has been to shift the comparative advantage away from traditional manufacturing industries and towards new knowledge-based economic activity. But where is this knowledge to come from? The university serves as a vital source of new economic knowledge. As research and knowledge become perhaps the most crucial component to generating economic growth and competitive jobs in globally-linked markets, universities emerge as a key factor in determining the future well-being of the United States.Less
The view regarding the role of universities has changed dramatically in the entrepreneurial society. There are several reasons for the emergence of the university as an engine of economic growth. The first is the shift away from the managed economy. A consequence of globalization in the most developed countries has been to shift the comparative advantage away from traditional manufacturing industries and towards new knowledge-based economic activity. But where is this knowledge to come from? The university serves as a vital source of new economic knowledge. As research and knowledge become perhaps the most crucial component to generating economic growth and competitive jobs in globally-linked markets, universities emerge as a key factor in determining the future well-being of the United States.
Donald J. Peurach
- Published in print:
- 2011
- Published Online:
- September 2011
- ISBN:
- 9780199736539
- eISBN:
- 9780199914593
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199736539.003.0021
- Subject:
- Psychology, Developmental Psychology
This chapter examines SFAF’s work improving its programs and its organization, all while supporting a state-sized system of schools operating in turbulent environments. Rather than a conventional ...
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This chapter examines SFAF’s work improving its programs and its organization, all while supporting a state-sized system of schools operating in turbulent environments. Rather than a conventional research-and-development process, the chapter details how SFAF’s development agenda, organization, and process interacted to produce new knowledge of effective implementation through collaborative organizational learning among SFAF and its schools. Yet, again, the chapter details Success for All’s paradox. On the one hand, this collaborative learning drove a rapid, four-year evolution in Success for All in support of expert implementation in schools. On the other hand, complex interdependencies among schools, the program, SFAF as an organization, and turbulent environments interacted not only to effect new challenges within the Success for All network but, also, to threaten the existence of the network.Less
This chapter examines SFAF’s work improving its programs and its organization, all while supporting a state-sized system of schools operating in turbulent environments. Rather than a conventional research-and-development process, the chapter details how SFAF’s development agenda, organization, and process interacted to produce new knowledge of effective implementation through collaborative organizational learning among SFAF and its schools. Yet, again, the chapter details Success for All’s paradox. On the one hand, this collaborative learning drove a rapid, four-year evolution in Success for All in support of expert implementation in schools. On the other hand, complex interdependencies among schools, the program, SFAF as an organization, and turbulent environments interacted not only to effect new challenges within the Success for All network but, also, to threaten the existence of the network.
Manuel Castells and Pekka Himanen
- Published in print:
- 2002
- Published Online:
- October 2011
- ISBN:
- 9780199256990
- eISBN:
- 9780191698415
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199256990.003.0003
- Subject:
- Business and Management, Information Technology
An essential element for a country to attain productivity growth is innovation. This chapter discusses the various strategies that Finland introduced in order to develop its innovation system and ...
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An essential element for a country to attain productivity growth is innovation. This chapter discusses the various strategies that Finland introduced in order to develop its innovation system and achieve economic development. First among these factors is education. The country consistently strives to train more professionals who are competent in the fields of science, mathematics, and technology than any other country. Secondly, the country also prioritizes funding in the research and development of its public and private firms through the initiatives of the Finnish Science and Technology Policy Council. Last but not least the culture of innovation is an important factor, in which creativity is valued towards work.Less
An essential element for a country to attain productivity growth is innovation. This chapter discusses the various strategies that Finland introduced in order to develop its innovation system and achieve economic development. First among these factors is education. The country consistently strives to train more professionals who are competent in the fields of science, mathematics, and technology than any other country. Secondly, the country also prioritizes funding in the research and development of its public and private firms through the initiatives of the Finnish Science and Technology Policy Council. Last but not least the culture of innovation is an important factor, in which creativity is valued towards work.
Paul Maddrell
- Published in print:
- 2006
- Published Online:
- January 2010
- ISBN:
- 9780199267507
- eISBN:
- 9780191708404
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199267507.003.0007
- Subject:
- History, European Modern History
This chapter begins by discussing the targets and methods in the field of scientific espionage. It explains that a key factor of containment was having enough military force to deter Soviet ...
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This chapter begins by discussing the targets and methods in the field of scientific espionage. It explains that a key factor of containment was having enough military force to deter Soviet aggression. It adds that spying on Soviet and satellite weaponry and war-related scientific research served the policies of containment and deterrence. It also investigates the intelligence on soviet scientific research and development. It explains that in order to exploit connections with the USSR, a standard method was to encourage suitably qualified spies to apply for jobs in targeted ministries, the East German army, or the SED. It discusses that spying on war-related research and development overlapped with broader industrial spying, for much science and technology with civilian applications was also relevant to war. It then explains that the West gained deep penetration of DDR's factories and research and development institutions active across the whole field of advanced technology.Less
This chapter begins by discussing the targets and methods in the field of scientific espionage. It explains that a key factor of containment was having enough military force to deter Soviet aggression. It adds that spying on Soviet and satellite weaponry and war-related scientific research served the policies of containment and deterrence. It also investigates the intelligence on soviet scientific research and development. It explains that in order to exploit connections with the USSR, a standard method was to encourage suitably qualified spies to apply for jobs in targeted ministries, the East German army, or the SED. It discusses that spying on war-related research and development overlapped with broader industrial spying, for much science and technology with civilian applications was also relevant to war. It then explains that the West gained deep penetration of DDR's factories and research and development institutions active across the whole field of advanced technology.
Richard R. Nelson and Nathan Rosenberg
- Published in print:
- 1999
- Published Online:
- November 2003
- ISBN:
- 9780198296041
- eISBN:
- 9780191596070
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/0198296045.003.0003
- Subject:
- Economics and Finance, Microeconomics
Approaches the firm from the perspective of its critical role in contributing to overall economic growth, addressing the broad question of technological advance and how it comes about. The ...
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Approaches the firm from the perspective of its critical role in contributing to overall economic growth, addressing the broad question of technological advance and how it comes about. The ‘technological residual’ in economists’ growth models has traditionally been treated as exogenous and has only recently come to be incorporated as endogenous, as a function of firms’ investment in research and development; the authors elaborate on this theme by focusing on the neglected role of science in technological advance and on the inherent uncertainty associated with such advance, and back their case with examples. The important contribution of private firms that invest in creating new or improved technology and appropriate the benefits thereof is given its due, but it is also noted that applied science (typically performed at universities) and research and development carried out by firms feed off each other; this interdependence stems from externalities, but also from less obvious linkages, such as private laboratories providing a labour market for university‐trained researchers, and applied university research rapidly responding to the need for scientific explanations of technological advances made by private firms. The fundamental uncertainty often associated with technological breakthroughs further complicates this picture, although the authors argue that there is commonly true surprise involved in the discovery of new technology, and in addition, make the point that in fact ‘old’ science often lies behind these breakthroughs. Finally, it is noted that incorporating the interdependence of public and private R&D, and the uncertainty of technological advance, into mainstream formal growth models may be difficult, however realistic it is.Less
Approaches the firm from the perspective of its critical role in contributing to overall economic growth, addressing the broad question of technological advance and how it comes about. The ‘technological residual’ in economists’ growth models has traditionally been treated as exogenous and has only recently come to be incorporated as endogenous, as a function of firms’ investment in research and development; the authors elaborate on this theme by focusing on the neglected role of science in technological advance and on the inherent uncertainty associated with such advance, and back their case with examples. The important contribution of private firms that invest in creating new or improved technology and appropriate the benefits thereof is given its due, but it is also noted that applied science (typically performed at universities) and research and development carried out by firms feed off each other; this interdependence stems from externalities, but also from less obvious linkages, such as private laboratories providing a labour market for university‐trained researchers, and applied university research rapidly responding to the need for scientific explanations of technological advances made by private firms. The fundamental uncertainty often associated with technological breakthroughs further complicates this picture, although the authors argue that there is commonly true surprise involved in the discovery of new technology, and in addition, make the point that in fact ‘old’ science often lies behind these breakthroughs. Finally, it is noted that incorporating the interdependence of public and private R&D, and the uncertainty of technological advance, into mainstream formal growth models may be difficult, however realistic it is.
TOM BURNS and G. M. STALKER
- Published in print:
- 1994
- Published Online:
- October 2011
- ISBN:
- 9780198288787
- eISBN:
- 9780191684630
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780198288787.003.0008
- Subject:
- Business and Management, Innovation, Organization Studies
This chapter discusses research and development in laboratories and ‘research departments’. Research and development refers to the use and cost of technical information as an industrial resource, as ...
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This chapter discusses research and development in laboratories and ‘research departments’. Research and development refers to the use and cost of technical information as an industrial resource, as a factor in production. There is a good deal of confusion prevalent in industry about what kinds of activity are comprehended within ‘research and development’. This chapter attempts to clarify those kinds of activities involved by analyzing the research laboratories of different firms.Less
This chapter discusses research and development in laboratories and ‘research departments’. Research and development refers to the use and cost of technical information as an industrial resource, as a factor in production. There is a good deal of confusion prevalent in industry about what kinds of activity are comprehended within ‘research and development’. This chapter attempts to clarify those kinds of activities involved by analyzing the research laboratories of different firms.
Masaru Yarime
- Published in print:
- 1953
- Published Online:
- May 2016
- ISBN:
- 9781479889389
- eISBN:
- 9781479830893
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- NYU Press
- DOI:
- 10.18574/nyu/9781479889389.003.0010
- Subject:
- Sociology, Economic Sociology
Japan caught up with the West by initially importing scientific knowledge, adapting it to local circumstances, learning from trial and error, and then innovating better technologies. With the rise of ...
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Japan caught up with the West by initially importing scientific knowledge, adapting it to local circumstances, learning from trial and error, and then innovating better technologies. With the rise of knowledge-based economies and intensifying global competition, Japan is now struggling to maintain industrial competitiveness, particularly in strategic sectors such as electronics, which are drained of home-based manufacturing technologies because of the transfer overseas of production facilities and research and development activities. As the country’s aging population and declining birthrate could result in a loss of social and economic vitality, institutional reforms are of critical importance in overcoming impediments to innovation. While Japan can be at the forefront of global efforts to cope with pressing societal challenges such as sustainability, Japanese academia is prompted to assimilate more junior people, women, and foreign researchers and Japanese industry to explore business opportunities in emerging markets in the promising fields of energy, environment, and health. The new paradigm will demand effective integration of necessary knowledge, going beyond the conventional model of university-industry collaboration, and public engagement of a diverse array of stakeholders in the coevolution of technology and institutions will be the key.Less
Japan caught up with the West by initially importing scientific knowledge, adapting it to local circumstances, learning from trial and error, and then innovating better technologies. With the rise of knowledge-based economies and intensifying global competition, Japan is now struggling to maintain industrial competitiveness, particularly in strategic sectors such as electronics, which are drained of home-based manufacturing technologies because of the transfer overseas of production facilities and research and development activities. As the country’s aging population and declining birthrate could result in a loss of social and economic vitality, institutional reforms are of critical importance in overcoming impediments to innovation. While Japan can be at the forefront of global efforts to cope with pressing societal challenges such as sustainability, Japanese academia is prompted to assimilate more junior people, women, and foreign researchers and Japanese industry to explore business opportunities in emerging markets in the promising fields of energy, environment, and health. The new paradigm will demand effective integration of necessary knowledge, going beyond the conventional model of university-industry collaboration, and public engagement of a diverse array of stakeholders in the coevolution of technology and institutions will be the key.
Albert N. Link and Donald S. Siegel
- Published in print:
- 2007
- Published Online:
- October 2011
- ISBN:
- 9780199268825
- eISBN:
- 9780191699290
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199268825.003.0004
- Subject:
- Business and Management, Innovation, Strategy
As discussed in Chapter 3, investments in R&D are positively related to total factor productivity (TFP) or productivity growth. Stated differently, empirical studies have consistently found a ...
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As discussed in Chapter 3, investments in R&D are positively related to total factor productivity (TFP) or productivity growth. Stated differently, empirical studies have consistently found a positive statistical relationship between numerous proxies for innovation (e.g., R&D employment, R&D expenditures, and patents) and indicators of performance (e.g., accounting profits, stock prices, and productivity). This statistical finding appears to hold both over various levels of aggregation (plant, firm, industry, and country levels) and over alternative econometric specifications (production, cost, and profit function). This chapter expands upon this statistical finding in two ways. First, it discusses the nature of R&D activity. It then reviews in detail the extant literature on R&D and firm performance. These extensions are critical because many of the studies in the literature demonstrate that the impact of R&D on firm performance depends on the type of R&D that is conducted or the source of R&D funding. That is, it is critical to analyze the various components of R&D, in order to accurately assess firm-level returns to R&D, as well as the impact of innovative activity on society.Less
As discussed in Chapter 3, investments in R&D are positively related to total factor productivity (TFP) or productivity growth. Stated differently, empirical studies have consistently found a positive statistical relationship between numerous proxies for innovation (e.g., R&D employment, R&D expenditures, and patents) and indicators of performance (e.g., accounting profits, stock prices, and productivity). This statistical finding appears to hold both over various levels of aggregation (plant, firm, industry, and country levels) and over alternative econometric specifications (production, cost, and profit function). This chapter expands upon this statistical finding in two ways. First, it discusses the nature of R&D activity. It then reviews in detail the extant literature on R&D and firm performance. These extensions are critical because many of the studies in the literature demonstrate that the impact of R&D on firm performance depends on the type of R&D that is conducted or the source of R&D funding. That is, it is critical to analyze the various components of R&D, in order to accurately assess firm-level returns to R&D, as well as the impact of innovative activity on society.
Robert Kneller
- Published in print:
- 2007
- Published Online:
- October 2011
- ISBN:
- 9780199268801
- eISBN:
- 9780191699283
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199268801.003.0002
- Subject:
- Business and Management, International Business, Innovation
This chapter explores the tendency of large established Japanese companies to innovate autarkicly, that is, to rely on their own in-house R&D laboratories for new prototype products and to try to ...
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This chapter explores the tendency of large established Japanese companies to innovate autarkicly, that is, to rely on their own in-house R&D laboratories for new prototype products and to try to maintain control over the upstream components of a vertically integrated value chain. It shows that the major Japanese pharmaceutical companies do innovate autarkicly while major US and European companies rely more on in-licensing from biotechnology companies and, to a lesser extent, universities. It also considers whether large Japanese companies in other industries also innovate autarkicly and looks at collaborations between large companies and universities.Less
This chapter explores the tendency of large established Japanese companies to innovate autarkicly, that is, to rely on their own in-house R&D laboratories for new prototype products and to try to maintain control over the upstream components of a vertically integrated value chain. It shows that the major Japanese pharmaceutical companies do innovate autarkicly while major US and European companies rely more on in-licensing from biotechnology companies and, to a lesser extent, universities. It also considers whether large Japanese companies in other industries also innovate autarkicly and looks at collaborations between large companies and universities.
Robert I. Field
- Published in print:
- 2013
- Published Online:
- January 2014
- ISBN:
- 9780199746750
- eISBN:
- 9780199354528
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199746750.003.0003
- Subject:
- Public Health and Epidemiology, Public Health
The pharmaceutical industry, perennially one of the most profitable,requires a steady flow of biomedical research to develop new products. However, investment in basic scienceis difficult for private ...
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The pharmaceutical industry, perennially one of the most profitable,requires a steady flow of biomedical research to develop new products. However, investment in basic scienceis difficult for private firms because discoveries are public goods available to everyone. The government has stepped in to fill this gap through the National Institutes of Health, which funds almost $30 billion of biomedical research each year. Often, it does so throughexplicit partnerships with private companies. Recent proactive initiatives, such as the Human Genome Project,areleading the industry to new scientific frontiers in genomic and personalized medicine. The government lends the industry further support by overseeing safety through the Food and Drug Administration, funding drug purchases through Medicare and Medicaid, and granting patents to new products. Without the government’s help, the industry would still exist, but it would be smaller, sell fewer products, and generate far less in profits.Less
The pharmaceutical industry, perennially one of the most profitable,requires a steady flow of biomedical research to develop new products. However, investment in basic scienceis difficult for private firms because discoveries are public goods available to everyone. The government has stepped in to fill this gap through the National Institutes of Health, which funds almost $30 billion of biomedical research each year. Often, it does so throughexplicit partnerships with private companies. Recent proactive initiatives, such as the Human Genome Project,areleading the industry to new scientific frontiers in genomic and personalized medicine. The government lends the industry further support by overseeing safety through the Food and Drug Administration, funding drug purchases through Medicare and Medicaid, and granting patents to new products. Without the government’s help, the industry would still exist, but it would be smaller, sell fewer products, and generate far less in profits.
Sinan Koont
- Published in print:
- 2011
- Published Online:
- May 2012
- ISBN:
- 9780813037578
- eISBN:
- 9780813042114
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- University Press of Florida
- DOI:
- 10.5744/florida/9780813037578.003.0004
- Subject:
- Society and Culture, Latin American Studies
After 1959, Cuba's higher-education system expanded greatly. In addition, many institutions (BTJ, ANIR, FCT, SCIT, etc.) were established to encourage technological innovation. Science education was ...
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After 1959, Cuba's higher-education system expanded greatly. In addition, many institutions (BTJ, ANIR, FCT, SCIT, etc.) were established to encourage technological innovation. Science education was emphasized down to the primary-school level. Cuba devoted considerable resources to R&D (for example, founding CIGB in biotechnology, establishing scientific hubs, and developing in vitro propagation technologies) and creating capabilities for R&D. In agricultural research and education, many of the universities established programs in sustainable agriculture. In addition, phyto-sanitary institutions were created to ensure plant health. The chapter ends with a discussion of two examples of outcomes for urban agriculture: one in banana production and the other in the control of nematodes (Hebernem).Less
After 1959, Cuba's higher-education system expanded greatly. In addition, many institutions (BTJ, ANIR, FCT, SCIT, etc.) were established to encourage technological innovation. Science education was emphasized down to the primary-school level. Cuba devoted considerable resources to R&D (for example, founding CIGB in biotechnology, establishing scientific hubs, and developing in vitro propagation technologies) and creating capabilities for R&D. In agricultural research and education, many of the universities established programs in sustainable agriculture. In addition, phyto-sanitary institutions were created to ensure plant health. The chapter ends with a discussion of two examples of outcomes for urban agriculture: one in banana production and the other in the control of nematodes (Hebernem).
Michael Kinch
- Published in print:
- 2016
- Published Online:
- May 2017
- ISBN:
- 9781469630625
- eISBN:
- 9781469630649
- Item type:
- book
- Publisher:
- University of North Carolina Press
- DOI:
- 10.5149/northcarolina/9781469630625.001.0001
- Subject:
- Business and Management, Innovation
The introduction of new medicines has dramatically improved the quantity and quality of individual and public health while contributing trillions of dollars to the global economy. In spite of these ...
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The introduction of new medicines has dramatically improved the quantity and quality of individual and public health while contributing trillions of dollars to the global economy. In spite of these past successes--and indeed because of them--our ability to deliver new medicines may be quickly coming to an end. Moving from the beginning of the twentieth century to the present, A Prescription for Change reveals how changing business strategies combined with scientific hubris have altered the way new medicines are discovered, with dire implications for both health and the economy.
To explain how we have arrived at this pivotal moment, Michael Kinch recounts the history of pharmaceutical and biotechnological advances in the twentieth century. Kinch relates stories of the individuals and organizations that built the modern infrastructure that supports the development of innovative new medicines. He shows that an accelerating cycle of acquisition and downsizing is cannibalizing that infrastructure Kinch demonstrates the dismantling of the pharmaceutical and biotechnological research and development enterprises could also provide opportunities to innovate new models that sustain and expand the introduction of newer and better breakthrough medicines in the years to come.Less
The introduction of new medicines has dramatically improved the quantity and quality of individual and public health while contributing trillions of dollars to the global economy. In spite of these past successes--and indeed because of them--our ability to deliver new medicines may be quickly coming to an end. Moving from the beginning of the twentieth century to the present, A Prescription for Change reveals how changing business strategies combined with scientific hubris have altered the way new medicines are discovered, with dire implications for both health and the economy.
To explain how we have arrived at this pivotal moment, Michael Kinch recounts the history of pharmaceutical and biotechnological advances in the twentieth century. Kinch relates stories of the individuals and organizations that built the modern infrastructure that supports the development of innovative new medicines. He shows that an accelerating cycle of acquisition and downsizing is cannibalizing that infrastructure Kinch demonstrates the dismantling of the pharmaceutical and biotechnological research and development enterprises could also provide opportunities to innovate new models that sustain and expand the introduction of newer and better breakthrough medicines in the years to come.
Varadharajan Sridhar
- Published in print:
- 2011
- Published Online:
- September 2012
- ISBN:
- 9780198075530
- eISBN:
- 9780199081042
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780198075530.003.0009
- Subject:
- Economics and Finance, Development, Growth, and Environmental
This chapter covers the hardware industry in the areas of network equipment, cables and transmission, hardware components, and handsets. The growth of this outsourcing and the recent advancements in ...
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This chapter covers the hardware industry in the areas of network equipment, cables and transmission, hardware components, and handsets. The growth of this outsourcing and the recent advancements in reverse outsourcing of software services by Indian telecos to multinational software firms are also reported. The Government has been easing regulatory policies to encourage the growth of the telecom manufacturing industry. Until now, India has demonstrated significant innovation capability in only two kinds of hardware. The rapid growth of mobile services brought innovation in service offerings. Network operations and management, information technology management, and customer relationship management are the three different areas of outsourcing that are being pursued by the telecom operators. Domestic manufacturing and Research and Development of telecom products both by the multinationals and indigenous manufacturers have fostered the growth of the industry; not all components can be sourced locally and are procured through global suppliers.Less
This chapter covers the hardware industry in the areas of network equipment, cables and transmission, hardware components, and handsets. The growth of this outsourcing and the recent advancements in reverse outsourcing of software services by Indian telecos to multinational software firms are also reported. The Government has been easing regulatory policies to encourage the growth of the telecom manufacturing industry. Until now, India has demonstrated significant innovation capability in only two kinds of hardware. The rapid growth of mobile services brought innovation in service offerings. Network operations and management, information technology management, and customer relationship management are the three different areas of outsourcing that are being pursued by the telecom operators. Domestic manufacturing and Research and Development of telecom products both by the multinationals and indigenous manufacturers have fostered the growth of the industry; not all components can be sourced locally and are procured through global suppliers.
Martin Fransman
- Published in print:
- 1999
- Published Online:
- November 2003
- ISBN:
- 9780198289357
- eISBN:
- 9780191596261
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/0198289359.003.0006
- Subject:
- Economics and Finance, Microeconomics
The chapter begins with a summary of the innovation process in Japanese companies, paying particular attention to several distinctive Japanese forms of organization, such as the lifetime employment ...
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The chapter begins with a summary of the innovation process in Japanese companies, paying particular attention to several distinctive Japanese forms of organization, such as the lifetime employment system (referred to in the Japanese context as the assumption of no exit) and the importance of committed shareholders; the effects of these forms of organization on the innovation process are examined. The influence of the Japanese government on the innovation process is then analysed, and it is argued that while the ‘engine’ of innovation is located in Japanese companies, organs of the Japanese government have played an important supportive role in facilitating the innovation process. Attention is then turned to the part played by the Ministry of International Trade and Industry (MITI). While it has often been argued that MITI is the most important organ of the Japanese government in terms of impact on the process of industrial innovation, MITI's expenditure on research and development (R&D) is dwarfed by that of the Ministry of Education and the Science and Technology Agency; this paradox is explained in terms of MITI's location at the centre of a vast information processing network. Finally, attention is turned briefly to the role of universities in the Japanese Innovation System, and it is argued that although Japanese universities are often weaker than their leading counterparts in the other major industrialized countries (in terms of their contribution to frontier research), the Japanese university system nevertheless makes an important contribution to the innovation process.Less
The chapter begins with a summary of the innovation process in Japanese companies, paying particular attention to several distinctive Japanese forms of organization, such as the lifetime employment system (referred to in the Japanese context as the assumption of no exit) and the importance of committed shareholders; the effects of these forms of organization on the innovation process are examined. The influence of the Japanese government on the innovation process is then analysed, and it is argued that while the ‘engine’ of innovation is located in Japanese companies, organs of the Japanese government have played an important supportive role in facilitating the innovation process. Attention is then turned to the part played by the Ministry of International Trade and Industry (MITI). While it has often been argued that MITI is the most important organ of the Japanese government in terms of impact on the process of industrial innovation, MITI's expenditure on research and development (R&D) is dwarfed by that of the Ministry of Education and the Science and Technology Agency; this paradox is explained in terms of MITI's location at the centre of a vast information processing network. Finally, attention is turned briefly to the role of universities in the Japanese Innovation System, and it is argued that although Japanese universities are often weaker than their leading counterparts in the other major industrialized countries (in terms of their contribution to frontier research), the Japanese university system nevertheless makes an important contribution to the innovation process.
