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Conclusions

Morwenna Ludlow

in Gregory of Nyssa, Ancient and (Post)modern

This concluding chapter draws together some more general answers to the question of why Gregory has been interpreted in so many different ways, first looking at the question from the perspective of ... More

This concluding chapter draws together some more general answers to the question of why Gregory has been interpreted in so many different ways, first looking at the question from the perspective of Gregory's readers and secondly by focussing on Gregory himself as a writer. It suggests that most accounts of Christian theology implicitly rely on one of three broad historiographical models. The first is the ‘static’ model, which views both theology and the Church as basically unchanging and thus also tends to see the development of doctrine in terms of the working-out of the logical implications of the first revelations of truths about God. The second is the ‘reformatory’ model, which shares with the static model a high evaluation of the original revelation of divine truth, but unlike it thinks that at some point the original revelation became degraded to such an extent that it was held by no Christian group in a satisfactory form. The thirds is the ‘ adaptive’ model — Christianity also changes across time, but not according to a pattern of original truth, fall, and reform.Less

Assimilating the Lower Classes

David R. Ambaras

in Bad Youth: Juvenile Delinquency and the Politics of Everyday Life in Modern Japan

This chapter discusses the adjustment of the lower classes. It notes that despite the reformers' humanitarian intentions, they tended to view the lower classes through their own prejudices and ... More

This chapter discusses the adjustment of the lower classes. It notes that despite the reformers' humanitarian intentions, they tended to view the lower classes through their own prejudices and offered benefits that did not meet the needs of their clients. The first section of the chapter takes a look at the social problems and social knowledge that were present at the start of the twentieth century, followed by a description of street urchins and the problem of the lower-class society. From there, the discussion shifts to the reformatory law and reformatory movement, which were enacted for the treatment of juvenile offenders, and also looks at reformatories in both practice and theory, and the special elementary schools that were built in Tokyo.Less

Fathers and the New Republic, 1770–1840

Jürgen Martschukat

in American Fatherhood: A History

Chapter 1 covers the era of the American Revolution and the Early Republic. As this chapter lays the groundwork for the observations to come, it is the only chapter that has no single actor in its ... More

Chapter 1 covers the era of the American Revolution and the Early Republic. As this chapter lays the groundwork for the observations to come, it is the only chapter that has no single actor in its center, even though it very much revolves around the thoughts and writings of Founding Father John Adams. The chapter shows how new understandings of the family, its composition and role, developed with the American Revolution and how the two-generation family became a powerful tool in the governance of the new American republic. In particular the chapter explores how this new kind of family related to specific notions of fatherhood. It also points to ambivalences of this new republican ideal of “governing through the family”—ambivalences that still cause political anxieties today: many men did not live up to the demands addressed to them as fathers in a liberal society, so that the state or philanthropic welfare organizations were formed to take over. The chapter also discusses the persistence of violence in American families and institutions, even though the republican family ideal professed a family of love, harmony, and parental guidance.Less

The Statutory Framework before 1968

Kenneth McK. Norrie

in A History of Scottish Child Protection Law

This chapter traces the evolving legislative framework of child protection processes, from the poor law and through the early regulation of reformatory and industrial schools, to the late 19th ... More

This chapter traces the evolving legislative framework of child protection processes, from the poor law and through the early regulation of reformatory and industrial schools, to the late 19th century statutes which for the first time focused on child protection. It examines in detail the aims of the Children Act 1908 through juvenile courts, its restructuring in 1932 and its consolidation by the Children and Young Persons (Scotland) Act 1937, before exploring the post-war shift from charitable to state activity, notably with the Children Act 1948 which made child protection a central aim of local authorities with the establishment of children’s committee and children’s officers. Also explored is the beginnings of the shift from insulating vulnerable children from their families to the involvement of their families in planning for the future. Early international conventions are described.Less

Institutional Care

Kenneth McK. Norrie

in A History of Scottish Child Protection Law

This chapter explores the development and increasing regulation of the institutional care of children removed from their families by the state. The growth of reformatory and industrial schools in the ... More

This chapter explores the development and increasing regulation of the institutional care of children removed from their families by the state. The growth of reformatory and industrial schools in the 19th century is dealt with, as are the reasons why these two types of school were never truly separate in Scotland. Their formal amalgamation into “approved schools” in 1932 is examined, as is the regulatory structures that evolved to ensure their appropriate running, including their registration, the managers, and the rules for discipline and corporal punishment. The regulation of children’s homes, originally run by charitable endeavours (voluntary organisations) and after 1948 increasingly by local authorities, is also covered. Various official reports reimagining the purpose of institutional care are examined in some detail, in particular the Kearney Report, as are the regulatory rules that developed from these reports. Finally, the development of “secure accommodation”, that is to say, locked accommodation, is described, with the regulatory framework governing the running of secure accommodation within institutional care of children.Less

Aftercare

Kenneth McK. Norrie

in A History of Scottish Child Protection Law

Aftercare, the duties owed to young people after they leave formal care, has always been an inherent aspect of the child protection process in Scotland, perhaps more so indeed in the early days when ... More

Aftercare, the duties owed to young people after they leave formal care, has always been an inherent aspect of the child protection process in Scotland, perhaps more so indeed in the early days when the assumption was that child protection necessitated the permanent removal of the child from the parent’s care. Early aftercare obligations were primarily around assistance in finding employment for young people when they reached school-leaving age, though managers of reformatory and industrial schools also had obligations to supervise the young person who had left their care for three years or until their 21st birthday. Latterly, education and training grants were made available, as were other forms of financial assistance. Finally, the Children and Young People (Scotland) Act 2014 imposed on local authority the obligation of “continuing care” towards young people who had previously been “looked after” by the local authority, and on a range of public bodies to act as “corporate parents” to such care leavers.Less

Creating Juvenile Delinquents: Redefining Childhood in the Late Ottoman Empire

Kent F. Schull

in Prisons in the Late Ottoman Empire: Microcosms of Modernity

Chapter Six investigates Ottoman conceptions of childhood, particularly regarding incarcerated minors. During the Second Constitutional Period, the CUP went to great lengths to protect children from ... More

Chapter Six investigates Ottoman conceptions of childhood, particularly regarding incarcerated minors. During the Second Constitutional Period, the CUP went to great lengths to protect children from serving prison sentences with adult inmates by rationalizing the legal definition of childhood and by centralizing power into the hands of the Imperial Ottoman Penal Code and the state-run criminal courts. The Ottoman Prison Administration was committed to removing children from prisons and separating criminally culpable minors from adult convicts. This was done through pardons, creating special reformatories for child criminals, and by introducing a gradated system of punishment according to the age of the child, thus introducing the notion of adolescences into the Middle East. By assuming greater responsibility for the protection of juvenile delinquents, the CUP increased the state’s intervention into the private sphere and simultaneously reshaped the public sphere.Less

The Reformatories and Industrial Schools

Roy Parker

in Uprooted: The Shipment of Poor Children to Canada, 1867-1917

This chapter discusses the patterns and attitudes towards emigration from British reformatories and industrial schools. The emigration of children from reformatories and industrial schools was always ... More

This chapter discusses the patterns and attitudes towards emigration from British reformatories and industrial schools. The emigration of children from reformatories and industrial schools was always a sensitive issue, since Canadian legislation debarred the entry of anyone with a criminal record, and public opinion could easily be inflamed by the claim that this prohibition had been evaded. In fact, it was only those who had been committed to a reformatory who were specifically precluded from entering the country, but even then there was the disputed question of whether an exception could be made in the case of those who had been fully discharged rather than released on licence. The position of the industrial-school children was more ill-defined and less well understood.Less

State Institutions

Richard B. Collins, Dale A. Oesterle, and Lawrence Friedman

in The Colorado State Constitution

This chapter explores Article VIII of the Colorado Constitution, on state institutions. Section 1 requires that the general assembly establish and support educational, reformatory, and penal ... More

This chapter explores Article VIII of the Colorado Constitution, on state institutions. Section 1 requires that the general assembly establish and support educational, reformatory, and penal institutions, and empowers it to establish other institutions for the “public good.” The general assembly has liberally used this power to create community colleges, universities, and state colleges. Sections 2 and 3 establish Denver as the state capital unless changed at a general election by a two-thirds vote of the people. Original Section 5 created, as institutions of the new state, the University at Boulder, the Agricultural College at Fort Collins, the School of Mines at Golden, and the school for the deaf at Colorado Springs, and gave them substantial autonomy. A 1970 amendment broadened coverage to all higher education institutions and gave the General Assembly control over them so long as its intent is clearly expressed.Less

A Different Story: Recreation and Cinema in Women’s Prisons and Reformatories

Alison Griffiths

in Carceral Fantasies: Cinema and Prison in Early Twentieth-Century America

Chapter 5: “A Different Story: Recreation and Cinema in Women’s Prisons and Reformatories” explores how women incarcerated in prisons and reformatories at the turn-of-the-last century first ... More

Chapter 5: “A Different Story: Recreation and Cinema in Women’s Prisons and Reformatories” explores how women incarcerated in prisons and reformatories at the turn-of-the-last century first encountered modern media such as magic lantern slides, phonographs, and motion pictures and why film exhibition began later in the women’s prison than in male institutions. Using New York State Prison for Women in Auburn and Bedford Hills Women’s Reformatory as case studies, the chapter considers what alternative models of women’s recreation were deemed suitable and what happened on occasions when women were shown motion pictures.Less

Institutionalisation, the State and the NSPCC

Sarah-Anne Buckley

in The cruelty man: Child welfare, the NSPCC and the State in Ireland, 1889-1956

Chapter Four looks specifically at the use of institutionalisation by the State and the NSPCC to ‘deal’ with children and families in poverty. It will show that, although industrial schools, ... More

Chapter Four looks specifically at the use of institutionalisation by the State and the NSPCC to ‘deal’ with children and families in poverty. It will show that, although industrial schools, reformatories and borstals were established in the nineteenth century in many countries, the continuation from the 1920s of a policy of institutionalising poor children for long periods was a particularly Irish phenomenon. Financial and religious concerns superseded the welfare of those children committed to industrial schools and reformatories, and the NSPCC was prominent in many of these committals. As discussions in parliament, in official reports, and by dissenting voices demonstrate, there was an acknowledgement of the problems in industrial schools, but they continued to be effectively unregulated by the State. The relationship between the NSPCC inspectors, the courts, the Gardaí and the religious orders shows the web of bureaucracy that maintained punitive, regimented institutions so akin to prisons in the public mind. Finally, the chapter looks at the experiences of those in the schools and the history of the schools up to the publication of the Kennedy Report in 1970.Less

Childhood as a national asset: the medical and moral framing of ‘health’

Kevin Ryan

in Refiguring childhood: Encounters with biosocial power

Chapter 6 presents a genealogy of reformatory education and public hygiene, focusing on how ‘health’ has come to traverse medical and moral conceptions of childhood, and how the figure of the healthy ... More

Chapter 6 presents a genealogy of reformatory education and public hygiene, focusing on how ‘health’ has come to traverse medical and moral conceptions of childhood, and how the figure of the healthy child – once configured as a ‘national asset’ – has since become a form of ‘capital investment’. Tracking this through the datafication of childhood, the core concern is how neoliberal enterprise culture has become a Procrustean bed, with biosocial power doing the work of fashioning life by empowering and supporting children in accordance with prescribed ‘outcomes’. The chapter concludes by taking up a critical perspective on the issue of obesity, examining the battle against childhood obesity as one of the ways in which neoliberal enterprise culture is immunised.Less

Ideas and Institutions: The Enlightenments, Human Nature, and Disability

in Comparing Special Education: Origins to Contemporary Paradoxes

This chapter explores the contribution of the eighteenth-century Enlightenment as the ideological origin of special education. It describes how the Enlightenment thought resulted in the rise and ... More

This chapter explores the contribution of the eighteenth-century Enlightenment as the ideological origin of special education. It describes how the Enlightenment thought resulted in the rise and establishment of institutions and organizations for the care, treatment and education of persons with disabilities. The chapter also compares the institutionalization and the founding of organizations in England and France, such as for juvenile reformatories and industrials schools, child labor legislation, and state institutions for blind and deaf people and people with mental illness or disabilities.Less

Introduction

Paul Sargent

in Wild Arabs and savages: A history of juvenile justice in Ireland

The introduction provides a brief overview of the development of the Irish juvenile justice system, highlighting the lack of legislative and policy development throughout most of the twentieth ... More

The introduction provides a brief overview of the development of the Irish juvenile justice system, highlighting the lack of legislative and policy development throughout most of the twentieth century. It introduces the reader to the key legal and policy developments including legislation underpinning the reformatory and industrial school system, the Children Act, 1908, the Children Act, 2001 and the development of the Irish Youth Justice Service. It also explains how the book adopts a governmentality approach, examining the development of juvenile justice in Ireland from four separate perspectives: how the system itself became visible, in terms of its underlying rationalities, in terms of the technologies of government and finally in the context of the forms of childhood identity employed to govern. It finally provides a brief outline of the book itself.Less

From penitentiary to community

Paul Sargent

in Wild Arabs and savages: A history of juvenile justice in Ireland

Given the fact that there is no existing history of juvenile justice in Ireland, this chapter provides a straightforward historical account of some of the main developments that have occurred from ... More

Given the fact that there is no existing history of juvenile justice in Ireland, this chapter provides a straightforward historical account of some of the main developments that have occurred from the emergence of the Irish juvenile justice system in the early nineteenth century to the early twenty-first century. It offers the reader a general overview of these developments and provides a historical context for the main study without attempting any theoretical explanation. It also reviews some of the existing literature relating to the Irish juvenile justice system. It highlights the fact that there have been no serious attempts to account for the historical development of juvenile justice in Ireland. Only fragments of this history have been written, for example, histories of the borstal system and of the industrial school system. However, these accounts are largely descriptive and do not engage in wider theoretical debates.Less

How the system became visible

Paul Sargent

in Wild Arabs and savages: A history of juvenile justice in Ireland

Chapter 3 explains how the juvenile justice system became visible in Ireland. It highlights how the ‘problem’ of the juvenile delinquent emerged in the mid-nineteenth century. Both the problem of ... More

Chapter 3 explains how the juvenile justice system became visible in Ireland. It highlights how the ‘problem’ of the juvenile delinquent emerged in the mid-nineteenth century. Both the problem of delinquency and its government are framed within various official reports by means of statistics. In addition, a new system of governing the delinquent population emerged in the form of the reformatory and later the industrial school and these regulatory sites supplemented existing sites such as the workhouse and the prison. From a governmentality perspective, the growth in bio-political knowledge surrounding the child results in the greater classification of delinquency and also results in a more refined calibration of the system itself. Although legislation providing for the borstal system and probation were later enacted, these initiatives never challenged the dominance of the reformatory and industrial school system and it was to be the early 1970s before this model began to be replaced. Around this time we see the emergence of a range of regulatory sites located within the ‘community’. The juvenile justice system has since become less visible but more pervasive within a myriad of governmental spaces within the community.Less

Reformulating Discretion in the Mid-to Late Nineteenth Century

Carolyn Strange

in Discretionary Justice: Pardon and Parole in New York from the Revolution to the Depression

The idea that individual failings—moral, physical, and mental—must dictate each criminal’s penal treatment gained currency in penal circles by the late 1800s. Starting in the Elmira Reformatory, ... More

The idea that individual failings—moral, physical, and mental—must dictate each criminal’s penal treatment gained currency in penal circles by the late 1800s. Starting in the Elmira Reformatory, prison managers acquired discretion over the release of prisoners and the surveillance of inmates after release, and reports of resounding success earned admiration in international forums. This chapter focuses on the shortcomings that occurred once those ideals were put into practice. Prisoners complained of appraisals by an unaccountable internal review board, and they went public with charges that the Elmira regime was cruel and arbitrary. In response, chief executives used their power to remedy administrative abuse, yet the same governors continued to respond to political pressures and personal ambitions every time they granted or withheld mercy.Less