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Includes all relevant information on national elections and referendums held in the former two Yemeni states and today's Republic of Yemen. Part I gives a comprehensive overview of Yemen's political history, outlines the evolution of electoral provisions, and presents the current electoral legislation in a standardized manner (suffrage, elected institutions, nomination of candidates, electoral system, organizational context of elections). Part II includes exhaustive electoral statistics in systematic tables (numbers of registered voters, votes cast, the votes for candidates and/or parties in parliamentary and presidential elections and referendums at both the national and regional level, the electoral participation of political parties, the distribution of parliamentary seats, etc.).

This chapter summarizes the criteria for a legitimate deliberative democracy and assesses the different deliberative democratic models against those criteria. It points out that no single process can meet them all, thus criticizing the ‘minipublic’ approach. It suggests that a deliberative system approach is necessary, using different processes at different points of the decision making process. The outlines of such a scheme are described, linking activists in civil society and parliamentary processes with a variety of agenda-setting and decision-making tools.

Explores the replacement in Italy of an extremely proportional (hyper‐representative) system by a relatively majoritarian variant of a mixed‐member electoral system. On April 18, 1993, the Italian electorate overwhelmingly approved a referendum that altered the electoral system for the national Senate. Unlike the 1993 referendum altering the electoral system in New Zealand (discussed in the previous chapter), which came at the end of a lengthy process including an extensive study and report by a Royal Commission, and which gave final popular approval to put the new electoral regime into effect, the Italian referendum was the catalyst that finally initiated change after long, but apparently futile, debate. Rather than ratifying the selection of one system that had been deliberately chosen over others, the Italian referendum imposed, at least for the moment, the only reform possible, given that Italian referendums can only abrogate existing laws, but cannot impose new ones. The different sections of the chapter are: Background to the Referendum of 1993; Immediate Impact of the Referendum; Ends and Means—to electoral reform; Drafting the New Electoral System in the Chamber; Drafting the New Electoral System in the Senate; The New Electoral System; and Expectations and Predictions.

The 1991 Maastricht Treaty on European Union (TEU) represented a dramatic new phase of European integration. The treaty called for intensified political integration, greater centralization of power in Brussels, and monetary union. Leading states including France and Germany made clear their commitment to see the treaty through to full implementation rapidly. However, controversial ratification processes soon unfolded in the post-commitment politics phases in both countries. In France, the TEU ratification struggle led to the near collapse of popular support for integration, and in a referendum in September 1992 passed by a narrow majority. Germany was one of the architects of the Treaty on European Union, yet it, too, experienced serious domestic political debates in the ratification phase.

The Treaty Establishing a Constitution for Europe (or European Constitution) provided a plan for deepening European integration with a centralization of power in Brussels. Supporters believed that it offered the promise of greater political, economic, and social unity for Europe in the twenty-first century. French and German government leaders hailed the advent of the treaty as a “moment of destiny” for the continent. While the German government ratified the treaty quickly, it generated serious controversy in France. Voters rejected the treaty in a national referendum on June 1, 2005, dealing a serious blow to progress on European integration.

Seen in the light of the absent demos, majoritarian government at EU level is not feasible except in areas where a common good can be identified (such as environmental policy). With respect to policy, this means that the EU will have to avoid deepening integration in a number of areas, most importantly personal income taxation and social policy. With respect to institutions, it means that reformers should not seek to democratize the union by granting increased powers to the European Parliament. Such measures would be likely to lead to a further loss of democratic legitimacy.

New Zealand experienced fundamental electoral system reform in the mid-1990s when voters, in a referendum, decided to replace the single-member plurality system by proportional representation achieved through a mixed compensatory system. This has reinforced the trend towards a multi-party system, and resulted in coalition government becoming the norm. It has also produced a more socio-demographically representative parliament. Some opposition to the mixed system remains, but overall, the effects of the change are perceived as beneficial.

After Thatcher and Major Euroscepticism, Tony Blair's UK did a better job at bringing Britain to Europe than Europe to Britain. He achieved the former objective by avoiding being isolated and seeking to give a lead when possible as part of New Labour's modernizing project. Failure to join the Euro — blocked by his Chancellor Gordon Brown — showed limitations to Blair's power. Although he succeeded in promoting an EU defence capability associated with NATO, the Iraq War weakened Britain's influence. While taking an active part in preparing the 2005 constitutional treaty, the UK government failed to sell the treaty to the British public and conceded a referendum Blair was likely to lose. While Britain was seen as somewhat less detached from the EU despite its opt outs, public hostility to integration was not overcome.

Far from EU enlargement and deepening being contradictory, the addition of new members to the EU led to new policies such as the redistributive regional policy structural funds consequent on the southward expansion of the 1980s. They became second only to the Common Agricultural Policy in expenditure. Northern enlargement encouraged environmental, social, and employment policies, while Central and Eastern enlargement was based on democratic and anti-corruption conditionality. Members who favoured enlargement were Britain, the Scandinavian countries, and Germany, while the others were either reticent or hostile, notably France towards Turkish accession. Enlargement was on elite-led process, popular hostility contributing to the rejection of the constitutional referendum in France and the Netherlands. Enlargement has necessitated institutional and financial adjustments, increasing problems of convergence and of leadership.

Includes all relevant information on national elections and referendums held in Syria since its independence. Part I gives a comprehensive overview of Syria's political history, outlines the evolution of electoral provisions, and presents the current electoral legislation in a standardized manner (suffrage, elected institutions, nomination of candidates, electoral system, organizational context of elections). Part II includes exhaustive electoral statistics in systematic tables (numbers of registered voters, votes cast, the votes for candidates and/or parties in parliamentary and presidential elections and referendums, the electoral participation of political parties, the distribution of parliamentary seats, etc.).

Includes all relevant information on national elections and referendums held since the proclamation of the Turkish Republic in 1923. Part I gives a comprehensive overview of Turkey's political history, outlines the evolution of electoral provisions, and presents the current electoral legislation in a standardized manner (suffrage, elected institutions, nomination of candidates, electoral system, organizational context of elections). Part II includes exhaustive electoral statistics in systematic tables (numbers of registered voters, votes cast, the votes for candidates and/or parties in parliamentary and presidential elections and referendums at national and regional level, the electoral participation of political parties, the distribution of parliamentary seats, etc.).

Includes all relevant information on national elections and referendums held in Armenia both during the short period of independence in 1919–1920 and since the establishment of the Second Republic in 1991. Part I gives a comprehensive overview of Armenia's political history, outlines the evolution of electoral provisions, and presents the current electoral legislation in a standardized manner (suffrage, elected institutions, nomination of candidates, electoral system, organizational context of elections). Part II includes exhaustive electoral statistics in systematic tables (numbers of registered voters, votes cast, the votes for candidates and/or parties in parliamentary and presidential elections and referendums, the electoral participation of political parties, the distribution of parliamentary seats, etc.).

Includes all relevant information on national elections and referendums held in Azerbaijan since 1991. Part I gives a comprehensive overview of Azerbaijan's political history, outlines the evolution of electoral provisions, and presents the current electoral legislation in a standardized manner (suffrage, elected institutions, nomination of candidates, electoral system, organizational context of elections). Part II includes exhaustive electoral statistics in systematic tables (numbers of registered voters, votes cast, the votes for candidates and/or parties in parliamentary and presidential elections and referendums, the electoral participation of political parties, the distribution of parliamentary seats, etc.).

Includes all relevant information on national elections and referendums held in Georgia both during the short period of independence in 1918–21 and since the regaining of independence in 1991. Part I gives a comprehensive overview of Georgia's political history, outlines the evolution of electoral provisions, and presents the current electoral legislation in a standardized manner (suffrage, elected institutions, nomination of candidates, electoral system, organizational context of elections). Part II includes exhaustive electoral statistics in systematic tables (numbers of registered voters, votes cast, the votes for candidates and/or parties in parliamentary and presidential elections and referendums, the electoral participation of political parties, the distribution of parliamentary seats, etc.).

Includes all relevant information on national elections and referendums held in Kazakhstan since 1990. Part I gives a comprehensive overview of Kazakhstan's political history, outlines the evolution of electoral provisions, and presents the current electoral legislation in a standardized manner (suffrage, elected institutions, nomination of candidates, electoral system, organizational context of elections). Part II includes exhaustive electoral statistics in systematic tables (numbers of registered voters, votes cast, the votes for candidates and/or parties in parliamentary and presidential elections and referendums at both the national and regional level, the electoral participation of political parties, the distribution of parliamentary seats, etc.).

Includes all relevant information on national elections and referendums held in Kyrgyzstan since 1990. Part I gives a comprehensive overview of Kyrgyzstan's political history, outlines the evolution of electoral provisions, and presents the current electoral legislation in a standardized manner (suffrage, elected institutions, nomination of candidates, electoral system, organizational context of elections). Part II includes exhaustive electoral statistics in systematic tables (numbers of registered voters, votes cast, the votes for candidates and/or parties in parliamentary and presidential elections and referendums at both the national and regional level, the electoral participation of political parties, the distribution of parliamentary seats, etc.).

Includes all relevant information on national elections and referendums held in Tajikistan since 1990. Part I gives a comprehensive overview of Tajikistan's political history, outlines the evolution of electoral provisions, and presents the current electoral legislation in a standardized manner (suffrage, elected institutions, nomination of candidates, electoral system, organizational context of elections). Part II includes exhaustive electoral statistics in systematic tables (numbers of registered voters, votes cast, the votes for candidates and/or parties in parliamentary and presidential elections and referendums, the electoral participation of political parties, the distribution of parliamentary seats, etc.).