W. Otto Friesen and Jonathon A. Friesen
- Published in print:
- 2009
- Published Online:
- February 2010
- ISBN:
- 9780195371833
- eISBN:
- 9780199865178
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195371833.003.0010
- Subject:
- Psychology, Cognitive Neuroscience
The Soma model simulates the origin of the resting potential in nerve cells. Because this model demonstrates steady-state conditions, or slow changes in the steady state, the membrane capacitance is ...
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The Soma model simulates the origin of the resting potential in nerve cells. Because this model demonstrates steady-state conditions, or slow changes in the steady state, the membrane capacitance is ignored. In addition, there are no voltage- or time-dependent membrane conductances in this model. The equilibrium (Nernst) potentials for sodium, potassium, calcium, and chloride ions are calculated from the relevant ionic concentrations. The relationship between temperature and equilibrium potentials can be explored by altering the simulated temperature. This model also includes an electrogenic pump, which generates a net outflow of positive ions and therefore acts to hyperpolarize the membrane.Less
The Soma model simulates the origin of the resting potential in nerve cells. Because this model demonstrates steady-state conditions, or slow changes in the steady state, the membrane capacitance is ignored. In addition, there are no voltage- or time-dependent membrane conductances in this model. The equilibrium (Nernst) potentials for sodium, potassium, calcium, and chloride ions are calculated from the relevant ionic concentrations. The relationship between temperature and equilibrium potentials can be explored by altering the simulated temperature. This model also includes an electrogenic pump, which generates a net outflow of positive ions and therefore acts to hyperpolarize the membrane.
Jun Suzuki
- Published in print:
- 2006
- Published Online:
- September 2006
- ISBN:
- 9780198292746
- eISBN:
- 9780191603891
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/0198292740.003.0006
- Subject:
- Economics and Finance, South and East Asia
This chapter discusses the importance of artisan workshops in the development of the machine manufacturing industry. Silk-reeling and coal mining, which played the significant role in Japan’s ...
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This chapter discusses the importance of artisan workshops in the development of the machine manufacturing industry. Silk-reeling and coal mining, which played the significant role in Japan’s industrialization, depended on these workshops with low priced boilers and pumps. This association is an example of the way positive linkages worked between small-scale production and leading export-oriented industries. Similar interconnections contributed to the establishment of modern machine manufacturing factories by providing training for skilled workers and forming markets for machinery.Less
This chapter discusses the importance of artisan workshops in the development of the machine manufacturing industry. Silk-reeling and coal mining, which played the significant role in Japan’s industrialization, depended on these workshops with low priced boilers and pumps. This association is an example of the way positive linkages worked between small-scale production and leading export-oriented industries. Similar interconnections contributed to the establishment of modern machine manufacturing factories by providing training for skilled workers and forming markets for machinery.
Stephen Gaukroger
- Published in print:
- 2006
- Published Online:
- January 2007
- ISBN:
- 9780199296446
- eISBN:
- 9780191711985
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199296446.003.0011
- Subject:
- Philosophy, History of Philosophy
This chapter deals with experimental philosophy, as represented in Gilbert on magnetism, Hobbes on the air pump, and Newton on the production of the spectrum. It is shown that experimental philosophy ...
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This chapter deals with experimental philosophy, as represented in Gilbert on magnetism, Hobbes on the air pump, and Newton on the production of the spectrum. It is shown that experimental philosophy differs from mechanism in quite radical ways. In particular, it has explanatory success but in apparently very localized domains, and it construes causation not in terms of underlying causes but in terms of causes acting at the same level. Its difference from mechanism is manifest in the contrast between Descartes' and Newton's accounts of the production of the spectrum: Descartes provides a fully geometrical account of the separation of coloured rays, but then shifts into a different register, a qualitative and speculative one in attempting to provide a micro-corpuscularian account of the physical basis of colour production; Newton manages to account for the spectrum without leaving the phenomenal geometricized level, eschewing any recourse to ‘underlying’ causes.Less
This chapter deals with experimental philosophy, as represented in Gilbert on magnetism, Hobbes on the air pump, and Newton on the production of the spectrum. It is shown that experimental philosophy differs from mechanism in quite radical ways. In particular, it has explanatory success but in apparently very localized domains, and it construes causation not in terms of underlying causes but in terms of causes acting at the same level. Its difference from mechanism is manifest in the contrast between Descartes' and Newton's accounts of the production of the spectrum: Descartes provides a fully geometrical account of the separation of coloured rays, but then shifts into a different register, a qualitative and speculative one in attempting to provide a micro-corpuscularian account of the physical basis of colour production; Newton manages to account for the spectrum without leaving the phenomenal geometricized level, eschewing any recourse to ‘underlying’ causes.
Peer Hull Kristensen and Jonathan Zeitlin
- Published in print:
- 2004
- Published Online:
- September 2007
- ISBN:
- 9780199275625
- eISBN:
- 9780191705809
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199275625.003.0002
- Subject:
- Business and Management, International Business
This chapter tells the story of the growth of the MNC using the example of four distinct firms, which after struggling for survival as more or less independent entities for over a century, came ...
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This chapter tells the story of the growth of the MNC using the example of four distinct firms, which after struggling for survival as more or less independent entities for over a century, came together in the 1970s and 1980s to form a single MNC. These independent firms each entered into the MNC for their own reasons, seeing this as the preferred alternative among several possibilities. In two out of three cases, the firms in question were already pursuing a multinational strategy of their own, whether individually or as part of a larger group. Since these efforts had failed or were about to, with their prospects looking bleak, each firm opted instead to become part of APV. But as their separate histories reveal, it was by no means predetermined that APV would become the firm that constituted the MNC headquarters and thereby end up seeing itself as acquiring the right to manage the others.Less
This chapter tells the story of the growth of the MNC using the example of four distinct firms, which after struggling for survival as more or less independent entities for over a century, came together in the 1970s and 1980s to form a single MNC. These independent firms each entered into the MNC for their own reasons, seeing this as the preferred alternative among several possibilities. In two out of three cases, the firms in question were already pursuing a multinational strategy of their own, whether individually or as part of a larger group. Since these efforts had failed or were about to, with their prospects looking bleak, each firm opted instead to become part of APV. But as their separate histories reveal, it was by no means predetermined that APV would become the firm that constituted the MNC headquarters and thereby end up seeing itself as acquiring the right to manage the others.
Peer Hull Kristensen and Jonathan Zeitlin
- Published in print:
- 2004
- Published Online:
- September 2007
- ISBN:
- 9780199275625
- eISBN:
- 9780191705809
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199275625.003.0005
- Subject:
- Business and Management, International Business
The case of Howard Pumps may be used to illustrate a case where the advantages that a multinational may offer member firms can be exploited. This chapter examines this case in detail and brings ...
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The case of Howard Pumps may be used to illustrate a case where the advantages that a multinational may offer member firms can be exploited. This chapter examines this case in detail and brings together some interesting conclusions.Less
The case of Howard Pumps may be used to illustrate a case where the advantages that a multinational may offer member firms can be exploited. This chapter examines this case in detail and brings together some interesting conclusions.
Bernard Crossland
- Published in print:
- 2008
- Published Online:
- May 2008
- ISBN:
- 9780199231256
- eISBN:
- 9780191710803
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199231256.003.0009
- Subject:
- Mathematics, History of Mathematics
This chapter focuses on the achievements of Lord Kelvin as one of the great engineers of the 19th century. Topics discussed include his interest in laying a transatlantic telegraph cable, his ...
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This chapter focuses on the achievements of Lord Kelvin as one of the great engineers of the 19th century. Topics discussed include his interest in laying a transatlantic telegraph cable, his contributions to marine technology, and his invention of the heat pump.Less
This chapter focuses on the achievements of Lord Kelvin as one of the great engineers of the 19th century. Topics discussed include his interest in laying a transatlantic telegraph cable, his contributions to marine technology, and his invention of the heat pump.
Alan Corney
- Published in print:
- 2006
- Published Online:
- September 2007
- ISBN:
- 9780199211456
- eISBN:
- 9780191705915
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199211456.003.0017
- Subject:
- Physics, Atomic, Laser, and Optical Physics
This chapter discusses the principles of the optical pumping technique. The effects of relaxation processes and of magnetic resonance transitions between Zeeman sub-levels are explained. Results of ...
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This chapter discusses the principles of the optical pumping technique. The effects of relaxation processes and of magnetic resonance transitions between Zeeman sub-levels are explained. Results of precision measurements of Landé g-factors are detailed. The effects of phase coherence and experiments involving transverse pumping are introduced.Less
This chapter discusses the principles of the optical pumping technique. The effects of relaxation processes and of magnetic resonance transitions between Zeeman sub-levels are explained. Results of precision measurements of Landé g-factors are detailed. The effects of phase coherence and experiments involving transverse pumping are introduced.
Patrick Magee and Mark Tooley
- Published in print:
- 2011
- Published Online:
- November 2020
- ISBN:
- 9780199595150
- eISBN:
- 9780191918032
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/oso/9780199595150.003.0031
- Subject:
- Clinical Medicine and Allied Health, Anesthesiology
Many infusions are given by gravity assisted, drip sets that give a flowrate dependent on the height of the reservoir above the patient, the length of the tubing, the bore of the IV cannula, the ...
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Many infusions are given by gravity assisted, drip sets that give a flowrate dependent on the height of the reservoir above the patient, the length of the tubing, the bore of the IV cannula, the density and viscosity of the fluid being delivered, and the patient’s venous pressure. However there is an increasing tendency to use programmable volumetric intravenous pumps and syringe drivers to deliver intravenous anaesthesia, fluids, patient controlled analgesia, epidural infusions and other drugs. Not only are they programmable, but they can also be adjusted to give desired flowrates or volumes. Some infusion devices are powered only by gravity, but the flowrate is controlled by a photoelectric drip rate detector in conjunction with a microprocessor controlled drip occlusion device. Other infusion devices use a stepper motor to control the rate of infusion. A stepper motor is designed so that the rotation is by a fixed amount per supplied electrical pulse, independent of the mechanical load it is carrying. The pulses are controlled by a microprocessor in the pump and the rate of infusion is dependent on the stepper motor’s output. Syringe drivers are designed to use a range of syringe sizes and some require special delivery tubing. The flow is a continuous, pulsatile flow and accuracy is 2–5%. Some syringe drivers are driven by clockwork motors, others by a battery powered motor that is intermittently on and off, depending on required flowrate. The driving mechanism is usually by a screw threaded rod connected to the syringe plunger. Other syringe drivers use a stepper motor connected to the screw threaded rod. Care should be taken not to position the syringe driver above the patient’s venous cannula or the syringe may siphon a drug additional to that programmed on the driver, by virtue of the weight of the column of fluid in the tubing above the patient. Care should also be taken to avoid any bubbles in the syringe reaching the patient. Modern syringe drivers are usually sufficiently accurate over the desired range of infusion [Stokes et al. 1990]. However, there may be a delay before the drug is delivered to the patient as the parts attached to the syringe take up slack [O’Kelly et al. 1992].
Less
Many infusions are given by gravity assisted, drip sets that give a flowrate dependent on the height of the reservoir above the patient, the length of the tubing, the bore of the IV cannula, the density and viscosity of the fluid being delivered, and the patient’s venous pressure. However there is an increasing tendency to use programmable volumetric intravenous pumps and syringe drivers to deliver intravenous anaesthesia, fluids, patient controlled analgesia, epidural infusions and other drugs. Not only are they programmable, but they can also be adjusted to give desired flowrates or volumes. Some infusion devices are powered only by gravity, but the flowrate is controlled by a photoelectric drip rate detector in conjunction with a microprocessor controlled drip occlusion device. Other infusion devices use a stepper motor to control the rate of infusion. A stepper motor is designed so that the rotation is by a fixed amount per supplied electrical pulse, independent of the mechanical load it is carrying. The pulses are controlled by a microprocessor in the pump and the rate of infusion is dependent on the stepper motor’s output. Syringe drivers are designed to use a range of syringe sizes and some require special delivery tubing. The flow is a continuous, pulsatile flow and accuracy is 2–5%. Some syringe drivers are driven by clockwork motors, others by a battery powered motor that is intermittently on and off, depending on required flowrate. The driving mechanism is usually by a screw threaded rod connected to the syringe plunger. Other syringe drivers use a stepper motor connected to the screw threaded rod. Care should be taken not to position the syringe driver above the patient’s venous cannula or the syringe may siphon a drug additional to that programmed on the driver, by virtue of the weight of the column of fluid in the tubing above the patient. Care should also be taken to avoid any bubbles in the syringe reaching the patient. Modern syringe drivers are usually sufficiently accurate over the desired range of infusion [Stokes et al. 1990]. However, there may be a delay before the drug is delivered to the patient as the parts attached to the syringe take up slack [O’Kelly et al. 1992].
W. Otto Friesen and Jonathon A. Friesen
- Published in print:
- 2009
- Published Online:
- February 2010
- ISBN:
- 9780195371833
- eISBN:
- 9780199865178
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195371833.003.0003
- Subject:
- Psychology, Cognitive Neuroscience
Thanks to the pioneering experiments of the Italian physician Luigi Galvani, it has long been understood that electricity plays a vital role in the functioning of the nervous system. That these ...
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Thanks to the pioneering experiments of the Italian physician Luigi Galvani, it has long been understood that electricity plays a vital role in the functioning of the nervous system. That these electrical signals are intrinsic to animal tissues was demonstrated by the German electrophysiologist du Bois Reymond, who showed that cells have a “resting” potential, the constant voltage across the cell membrane in the absence of stimulation. This chapter describes the Nernst equation, which predicts the strength of electrical potentials that arise from ionic concentrations differences across membranes. The fundamental role of the Nernst equation for electrophysiology is presented in relationship to the parallel conductance model for the cell membrane potential. Basic equations for resting potential, including the role of the electrogenic membrane ion pump, are presented.Less
Thanks to the pioneering experiments of the Italian physician Luigi Galvani, it has long been understood that electricity plays a vital role in the functioning of the nervous system. That these electrical signals are intrinsic to animal tissues was demonstrated by the German electrophysiologist du Bois Reymond, who showed that cells have a “resting” potential, the constant voltage across the cell membrane in the absence of stimulation. This chapter describes the Nernst equation, which predicts the strength of electrical potentials that arise from ionic concentrations differences across membranes. The fundamental role of the Nernst equation for electrophysiology is presented in relationship to the parallel conductance model for the cell membrane potential. Basic equations for resting potential, including the role of the electrogenic membrane ion pump, are presented.
Duncan MacIntosh
- Published in print:
- 2010
- Published Online:
- May 2010
- ISBN:
- 9780195376685
- eISBN:
- 9780199776306
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195376685.003.0004
- Subject:
- Philosophy, Moral Philosophy
Chrisoula Andreou says procrastination qua imprudent delay is modeled by Warren Quinn’s self-torturer, who supposedly has intransitive preferences that rank each indulgence in something that delays ...
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Chrisoula Andreou says procrastination qua imprudent delay is modeled by Warren Quinn’s self-torturer, who supposedly has intransitive preferences that rank each indulgence in something that delays his global goals over working toward those goals and who finds it vague where best to stop indulging. His pair-wise choices to indulge result in his failing the goals, which he then regrets. This chapter argues, contra the money-pump argument, that it is not irrational to have or choose from intransitive preferences; so the agent’s delays are not imprudent, not instances of procrastination. Moreover, the self-torturer case is intelligible only if there is no vagueness and if the agent’s preferences are transitive. But then he would delay only from ordinary weakness of will. And when it is vague where best to stop indulging, rational agents would use symmetry-breaking techniques; so, again, any procrastination would be explained by standard weakness of will, not vagueness.Less
Chrisoula Andreou says procrastination qua imprudent delay is modeled by Warren Quinn’s self-torturer, who supposedly has intransitive preferences that rank each indulgence in something that delays his global goals over working toward those goals and who finds it vague where best to stop indulging. His pair-wise choices to indulge result in his failing the goals, which he then regrets. This chapter argues, contra the money-pump argument, that it is not irrational to have or choose from intransitive preferences; so the agent’s delays are not imprudent, not instances of procrastination. Moreover, the self-torturer case is intelligible only if there is no vagueness and if the agent’s preferences are transitive. But then he would delay only from ordinary weakness of will. And when it is vague where best to stop indulging, rational agents would use symmetry-breaking techniques; so, again, any procrastination would be explained by standard weakness of will, not vagueness.
Alan Corney
- Published in print:
- 2006
- Published Online:
- September 2007
- ISBN:
- 9780199211456
- eISBN:
- 9780191705915
- Item type:
- book
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199211456.001.0001
- Subject:
- Physics, Atomic, Laser, and Optical Physics
This book gives an account of the progress that has been made in the fields of atomic physics and laser spectroscopy during the last fifty years. The first five chapters prepare the foundations of ...
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This book gives an account of the progress that has been made in the fields of atomic physics and laser spectroscopy during the last fifty years. The first five chapters prepare the foundations of atomic physics, classical electro-magnetism, and quantum mechanics, which are necessary for an understanding of the interaction of electromagnetic radiation with free atoms. The application of these concepts to processes involving the spontaneous emission of radiation is then developed in Chapters 6, 7, and 8, while stimulated emission and the properties of gas and tunable dye lasers form the subject matter of Chapters 9 to 14. The last four chapters are concerned with the physics and applications of atomic resonance fluorescence, optical double-resonance, optical pumping, and atomic beam magnetic resonance.Less
This book gives an account of the progress that has been made in the fields of atomic physics and laser spectroscopy during the last fifty years. The first five chapters prepare the foundations of atomic physics, classical electro-magnetism, and quantum mechanics, which are necessary for an understanding of the interaction of electromagnetic radiation with free atoms. The application of these concepts to processes involving the spontaneous emission of radiation is then developed in Chapters 6, 7, and 8, while stimulated emission and the properties of gas and tunable dye lasers form the subject matter of Chapters 9 to 14. The last four chapters are concerned with the physics and applications of atomic resonance fluorescence, optical double-resonance, optical pumping, and atomic beam magnetic resonance.
Norman F. Ramsey
- Published in print:
- 1986
- Published Online:
- September 2007
- ISBN:
- 9780198520214
- eISBN:
- 9780191706325
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780198520214.003.0013
- Subject:
- Physics, Atomic, Laser, and Optical Physics
Formulae useful for molecular beam designs are given including beam intensity, sources, attenuation by scattering, detectors (surface ionization, Pirani and other), resonance widths, single and ...
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Formulae useful for molecular beam designs are given including beam intensity, sources, attenuation by scattering, detectors (surface ionization, Pirani and other), resonance widths, single and separated oscillatory fields, pumping speeds, collimator, optimal collimator position, beam widths heights and widths, etc. Dimensions and characteristics of a high resolution atomic hydrogen apparatus.Less
Formulae useful for molecular beam designs are given including beam intensity, sources, attenuation by scattering, detectors (surface ionization, Pirani and other), resonance widths, single and separated oscillatory fields, pumping speeds, collimator, optimal collimator position, beam widths heights and widths, etc. Dimensions and characteristics of a high resolution atomic hydrogen apparatus.
Alan Corney
- Published in print:
- 2006
- Published Online:
- September 2007
- ISBN:
- 9780199211456
- eISBN:
- 9780191705915
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199211456.003.0018
- Subject:
- Physics, Atomic, Laser, and Optical Physics
This chapter develops the theory of the hyperfine structure of atoms involving nuclear magnetic dipole and electric quadrupole moments. The Zeeman effect in weak, intermediate, and strong magnetic ...
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This chapter develops the theory of the hyperfine structure of atoms involving nuclear magnetic dipole and electric quadrupole moments. The Zeeman effect in weak, intermediate, and strong magnetic fields is considered. The experimental measurement of the hyperfine structure of ground state atoms by the techniques of optical pumping, atomic beam magnetic resonance, and optical double resonance is explained. The caesium beam atomic clock, the importance of hyperfine structure experiments in hydrogen, and the investigation of hyperfine structure of excited states are discussed.Less
This chapter develops the theory of the hyperfine structure of atoms involving nuclear magnetic dipole and electric quadrupole moments. The Zeeman effect in weak, intermediate, and strong magnetic fields is considered. The experimental measurement of the hyperfine structure of ground state atoms by the techniques of optical pumping, atomic beam magnetic resonance, and optical double resonance is explained. The caesium beam atomic clock, the importance of hyperfine structure experiments in hydrogen, and the investigation of hyperfine structure of excited states are discussed.
Makoto Kuwata-Gonokami
- Published in print:
- 2007
- Published Online:
- May 2008
- ISBN:
- 9780199238873
- eISBN:
- 9780191716652
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199238873.003.0010
- Subject:
- Physics, Condensed Matter Physics / Materials
This chapter reviews mid-infrared pump-probe spectroscopy, which is applied to visualize picosecond dynamics of excitons and electron-hole ensembles in bulk CuCl and Cu2O. For CuCl, the author ...
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This chapter reviews mid-infrared pump-probe spectroscopy, which is applied to visualize picosecond dynamics of excitons and electron-hole ensembles in bulk CuCl and Cu2O. For CuCl, the author describes his experimental results on the Mott transition from the excitonic phase to an electron-hole plasma. The observed spatial segregation of the two phases is also discussed. For Cu2O, the measurements of the infrared Lyman series associated with ortho-excitons are reviewed, and an effective generation of para-excitons through scattering of cold ortho-excitons is proposed.Less
This chapter reviews mid-infrared pump-probe spectroscopy, which is applied to visualize picosecond dynamics of excitons and electron-hole ensembles in bulk CuCl and Cu2O. For CuCl, the author describes his experimental results on the Mott transition from the excitonic phase to an electron-hole plasma. The observed spatial segregation of the two phases is also discussed. For Cu2O, the measurements of the infrared Lyman series associated with ortho-excitons are reviewed, and an effective generation of para-excitons through scattering of cold ortho-excitons is proposed.
Stephen C. Rand
- Published in print:
- 2010
- Published Online:
- September 2010
- ISBN:
- 9780199574872
- eISBN:
- 9780191722219
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199574872.003.0005
- Subject:
- Physics, Atomic, Laser, and Optical Physics
Chapter 5 begins the systematic application of the density matrix to describe optical interactions. First, stationary two‐ and three‐level atoms interacting with a traveling wave are compared to show ...
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Chapter 5 begins the systematic application of the density matrix to describe optical interactions. First, stationary two‐ and three‐level atoms interacting with a traveling wave are compared to show that the presence of additional levels changes the saturation behavior of atoms. Then motion of the atoms is introduced and the phenomena of spatial and frequency‐domain hole‐burning are analyzed. Special effects due to standing waves, such as the light shift are covered in this section. Next, tri‐level coherence is considered, to extend the concept of coherences to two‐photon transitions or Zeeman interactions in folded Λ‐ or V‐systems. Higher (third‐)order interactions are also analyzed. This includes four‐wave mixing and pump‐probe spectroscopy which form the basis of common nonlinear laser spectrocopies. The chapter closes by pointing out that higher order coherent interactions, which can sometimes be important if they are deliberately phase‐matched, are best treated using a diagrammatic calculational technique based on Feynman diagrams.Less
Chapter 5 begins the systematic application of the density matrix to describe optical interactions. First, stationary two‐ and three‐level atoms interacting with a traveling wave are compared to show that the presence of additional levels changes the saturation behavior of atoms. Then motion of the atoms is introduced and the phenomena of spatial and frequency‐domain hole‐burning are analyzed. Special effects due to standing waves, such as the light shift are covered in this section. Next, tri‐level coherence is considered, to extend the concept of coherences to two‐photon transitions or Zeeman interactions in folded Λ‐ or V‐systems. Higher (third‐)order interactions are also analyzed. This includes four‐wave mixing and pump‐probe spectroscopy which form the basis of common nonlinear laser spectrocopies. The chapter closes by pointing out that higher order coherent interactions, which can sometimes be important if they are deliberately phase‐matched, are best treated using a diagrammatic calculational technique based on Feynman diagrams.
Edward F. McClennen
- Published in print:
- 2009
- Published Online:
- May 2009
- ISBN:
- 9780199290420
- eISBN:
- 9780191710506
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199290420.003.0006
- Subject:
- Economics and Finance, Public and Welfare
Some version or other of what is known as the “independence principle” plays a ubiquitous role in the axiomatic derivation of the normative version of expected‐utility theory. The various versions ...
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Some version or other of what is known as the “independence principle” plays a ubiquitous role in the axiomatic derivation of the normative version of expected‐utility theory. The various versions are identified, and the arguments for each are critiqued. The conclusion is that none of the arguments for this or that version of the independence principle are convincing, and thus that the expected‐utility theory, as a normative theory, is itself much less secure than most have taken it to be.Less
Some version or other of what is known as the “independence principle” plays a ubiquitous role in the axiomatic derivation of the normative version of expected‐utility theory. The various versions are identified, and the arguments for each are critiqued. The conclusion is that none of the arguments for this or that version of the independence principle are convincing, and thus that the expected‐utility theory, as a normative theory, is itself much less secure than most have taken it to be.
Paul Anand
- Published in print:
- 2009
- Published Online:
- May 2009
- ISBN:
- 9780199290420
- eISBN:
- 9780191710506
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199290420.003.0007
- Subject:
- Economics and Finance, Public and Welfare
This chapter provides an overview of what has been called by philosophers the “modern view“ of formal rational choice by focussing on the arguments relating to rational agency and transitive ...
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This chapter provides an overview of what has been called by philosophers the “modern view“ of formal rational choice by focussing on the arguments relating to rational agency and transitive (intransitive) preference. In particular it demonstrates that the logical and semantic arguments are either question‐begging or incomplete. Suggesting that static and dynamic justifications of transitivity are essentially distinct, it identifies a number of problems with the standard money‐pump argument that purports to show why rational agents' preferences are necessarily constrained to have the transitivity property. Subsequently, constructive examples indicating how and when rational agents would want to exhibit intransitive preferences are discussed and finally some of the more recent explicitly game‐theoretic treatments of the argument are discussed. It concludes by suggesting that expected utility should be regarded as a model of context‐free choice, and that a wide range of more general models with the ability to reflect the structure of preference should be seen as modelling rational phenomena.Less
This chapter provides an overview of what has been called by philosophers the “modern view“ of formal rational choice by focussing on the arguments relating to rational agency and transitive (intransitive) preference. In particular it demonstrates that the logical and semantic arguments are either question‐begging or incomplete. Suggesting that static and dynamic justifications of transitivity are essentially distinct, it identifies a number of problems with the standard money‐pump argument that purports to show why rational agents' preferences are necessarily constrained to have the transitivity property. Subsequently, constructive examples indicating how and when rational agents would want to exhibit intransitive preferences are discussed and finally some of the more recent explicitly game‐theoretic treatments of the argument are discussed. It concludes by suggesting that expected utility should be regarded as a model of context‐free choice, and that a wide range of more general models with the ability to reflect the structure of preference should be seen as modelling rational phenomena.
Jessica Martucci
- Published in print:
- 2015
- Published Online:
- May 2016
- ISBN:
- 9780226288031
- eISBN:
- 9780226288178
- Item type:
- book
- Publisher:
- University of Chicago Press
- DOI:
- 10.7208/chicago/9780226288178.001.0001
- Subject:
- History, History of Science, Technology, and Medicine
Breastfeeding rates in America fell throughout the 1950s and 1960s before beginning to climb again in the 1970s. This work argues that the development of an ideology of natural motherhood preceded ...
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Breastfeeding rates in America fell throughout the 1950s and 1960s before beginning to climb again in the 1970s. This work argues that the development of an ideology of natural motherhood preceded breastfeeding's return. Rooted in psychology and animal studies in the 1930s, the ideology of natural motherhood moved beyond the confines of scientific study as a handful of mothers sought out the experiences of “natural” childbirths and breastfeeding in the 1940s. By the 1950s, a back to the breast movement was firmly established within segments of the white, middle-class, and often college educated, population. Despite the widespread acceptance of formula feeding by the medical community throughout the majority of the twentieth century, a small but vocal minority of mothers pushed back against hospital policies and cultural norms when they insisted on breastfeeding their children. In the 1970s, political tensions within the breastfeeding community erupted over the biological essentialism upon which many early breastfeeding advocates had built their arguments. Despite these rifts, natural motherhood continued to hold personal meaning for women across the political spectrum who sought a connection to a natural maternal identity. By the late 1980s, breastfeeding became increasingly associated with the extraction of breast milk from the breast via a breast pump. In the twenty-first century, natural motherhood remains a powerful draw for women who want to feed their infants “naturally,” even while medical and public health messages about breastfeeding can often obscure the movement's maternalist roots.Less
Breastfeeding rates in America fell throughout the 1950s and 1960s before beginning to climb again in the 1970s. This work argues that the development of an ideology of natural motherhood preceded breastfeeding's return. Rooted in psychology and animal studies in the 1930s, the ideology of natural motherhood moved beyond the confines of scientific study as a handful of mothers sought out the experiences of “natural” childbirths and breastfeeding in the 1940s. By the 1950s, a back to the breast movement was firmly established within segments of the white, middle-class, and often college educated, population. Despite the widespread acceptance of formula feeding by the medical community throughout the majority of the twentieth century, a small but vocal minority of mothers pushed back against hospital policies and cultural norms when they insisted on breastfeeding their children. In the 1970s, political tensions within the breastfeeding community erupted over the biological essentialism upon which many early breastfeeding advocates had built their arguments. Despite these rifts, natural motherhood continued to hold personal meaning for women across the political spectrum who sought a connection to a natural maternal identity. By the late 1980s, breastfeeding became increasingly associated with the extraction of breast milk from the breast via a breast pump. In the twenty-first century, natural motherhood remains a powerful draw for women who want to feed their infants “naturally,” even while medical and public health messages about breastfeeding can often obscure the movement's maternalist roots.
Michael I. Polkey
- Published in print:
- 2005
- Published Online:
- November 2011
- ISBN:
- 9780198530039
- eISBN:
- 9780191730450
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780198530039.003.0008
- Subject:
- Palliative Care, Patient Care and End-of-Life Decision Making, Pain Management and Palliative Pharmacology
This chapter discusses the function of respiratory muscles and their interaction with the respiratory system in health and disease. Dyspnoea generally occurs when the load on the respiratory muscle ...
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This chapter discusses the function of respiratory muscles and their interaction with the respiratory system in health and disease. Dyspnoea generally occurs when the load on the respiratory muscle pump exceeds its capacity. It also occurs when respiratory muscle weakness, abnormalities in the respiratory muscle control, and irregularities in the skeletal muscle occur. The chapter begins with a discussion on the respiratory muscle in healthy individuals and then examines its contribution to breathlessness in disease. Respiratory muscle functions that may contribute to breathlessness include respiratory muscle weakness, respiratory movement disorder, COPD, and chronic heart failure (CHF). The chapter also provides a brief discussion on respiratory muscle function in cancer patients.Less
This chapter discusses the function of respiratory muscles and their interaction with the respiratory system in health and disease. Dyspnoea generally occurs when the load on the respiratory muscle pump exceeds its capacity. It also occurs when respiratory muscle weakness, abnormalities in the respiratory muscle control, and irregularities in the skeletal muscle occur. The chapter begins with a discussion on the respiratory muscle in healthy individuals and then examines its contribution to breathlessness in disease. Respiratory muscle functions that may contribute to breathlessness include respiratory muscle weakness, respiratory movement disorder, COPD, and chronic heart failure (CHF). The chapter also provides a brief discussion on respiratory muscle function in cancer patients.
Alan J. McComas
- Published in print:
- 2011
- Published Online:
- September 2011
- ISBN:
- 9780199751754
- eISBN:
- 9780199897094
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199751754.003.0016
- Subject:
- Neuroscience, History of Neuroscience, Sensory and Motor Systems
Lorente de Nó is unable to accept the giant axon work. Hodgkin, however, presses on and shows that it is possible to replace the interior of a giant axon with a potassium solution; the resting ...
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Lorente de Nó is unable to accept the giant axon work. Hodgkin, however, presses on and shows that it is possible to replace the interior of a giant axon with a potassium solution; the resting membrane potential is maintained and action potentials can still be elicited. Reversing the potassium concentration gradient across the membrane reverses the membrane potential. Hodgkin’s Cambridge colleague, Richard Keynes, uses isotopes to demonstrate a small inward flux of sodium ions across the resting membrane, and then shows, with Hodgkin, that the ions are then expelled by an energy-dependent process. This process is identified elsewhere as the work of a sodium-potassium pump in the membrane. Meawhile Huxley, with Stampfli, demonstrates that the action potential travels down a myelinated nerve fibre by jumping from one node of Ranvier to the next. The density of sodium channels in the membrane at a node is estimated and the remarkable efficiency of the channels demonstratedLess
Lorente de Nó is unable to accept the giant axon work. Hodgkin, however, presses on and shows that it is possible to replace the interior of a giant axon with a potassium solution; the resting membrane potential is maintained and action potentials can still be elicited. Reversing the potassium concentration gradient across the membrane reverses the membrane potential. Hodgkin’s Cambridge colleague, Richard Keynes, uses isotopes to demonstrate a small inward flux of sodium ions across the resting membrane, and then shows, with Hodgkin, that the ions are then expelled by an energy-dependent process. This process is identified elsewhere as the work of a sodium-potassium pump in the membrane. Meawhile Huxley, with Stampfli, demonstrates that the action potential travels down a myelinated nerve fibre by jumping from one node of Ranvier to the next. The density of sodium channels in the membrane at a node is estimated and the remarkable efficiency of the channels demonstrated
