Search Results

This chapter describes a theoretical meta-analysis in which the literature of psychological science itself provides the data that ground its examination. Specifically, it focuses on one portion of the implicit scientific reasoning or assumptions that psychologists use in conducting their scientific investigations—their ontological reasoning. We chose to focus on ontological reasoning for two reasons. First, ontological assumptions are often viewed as even more fundamental than epistemological assumptions, and thus are considered more fundamental in the implicit reasoning of scientists. Second, the ontological reasoning we identify in psychology’s research methods has been highly criticized. In fact, we outline what seems to be a growing consensus, across a diverse set of contexts, that this particular ontology is deeply problematic. Yet, because many psychologists are generally unaware of it, they frequently embrace this ontology as if it were problem-free.

This chapter begins with a discussion of the blind contact strategy for psychological research. It then proposes that if we could eliminate experimenter-subject contact altogether it would seem that we would then also eliminate the operation of experimenter expectancy effects.

This chapter offers a critique of positive emotion research with the goal of suggesting specific ways positive psychology could move forward. Although research on positive emotion has made tremendous inroads in the past decade, several areas need further addressing. First, positive psychology often appears “thin” at this point, partially because it is not founded in a historical perspective. Second, positive psychologists must make an explicit connection with other contemporary research on the topics relevant to positive psychology (e.g. empathy, willpower, cooperation) to broaden its intellectual base. Third, although most people in the US want to be happier and most positive psychologists want to make people happier as well, it is critical to test the tacit assumption of positive psychology that the happier, the better. Fourth, it is important for positive psychologists to acknowledge that negative emotions play a non-trivial role in a well-lived life, and to begin to fully examine how negative emotions fit into positive psychology. Fifth, although recent intervention studies were successful, it is important to examine the longer-term effects of these interventions in the future.

This chapter discusses how children who have cancer and their families cope with and adjust to the experience. It considers the problems in defining adequate coping and adjustment reactions given the continuing uncertainties and life-threatening conditions of childhood cancers. The chapter critically reviews the major “paradigmatic models” that serve as theoretical contexts for coping research and considers such findings in terms of adaptive and maladaptive coping strategies as well as the correlates of healthy adjustment.

This chapter is aimed at reviewing, discussing, and providing an overview of the field of psychology’s current status concerning the study of one configuration of multiple identities with regard to two core social statuses, race/ethnicity and sexuality. The first part describes the few theories and conceptual frameworks that psychologists have put forth to explain the ways race and ethnicity influence the varied experiences of lesbian, gay, and bisexual people, as well as empirical research supporting these frameworks. In particular, it examines theoretical frameworks addressing multiple oppressions; cultural contexts; and queer theory, discourse theory, and challenging hegemony. The second part offers recommendations for how to move the field forward with regard to more sensitive and nuanced explorations of the lived experiences of lesbian, gay, and bisexual people of color. This section explores both conceptual/theoretical issues to examine in future research as well as methodological issues to consider in such explorations.

This chapter discusses the challenges faced by the field of positive psychology as it approaches its second decade of existence. Among these is the lack of clarity on which research topics constitute “positive psychology”; the one-sided focus on desirable-sounding constructs and topics, with new, exotic terms like self-compassion or state cheerfulness proliferating; and researchers' failure to consider the yin and yang of positive and negative, the dialectical tension between stress and growth.

This chapter focuses on the problem raised by some of the psychological research, the relationship between those processes that work beyond the scope of the individual's awareness, and what it is people actually think they are doing. It shows how empirical research fleshes out the philosophical idea that people act under the guidance of certain descriptions, frames for making sense of what is going on, what kinds of people are acting, and how actions should be judged. These descriptions circulate in a public world, where part of their power derives from their availability to others. They arise in social interactions where these are demanded, accepted, and rejected; here ethics is catalyzed into forms available to other persons. At this point, they are made available for further development, criticism, adoption, or rejection within a larger community.

This chapter makes a case for the importance of place in positive psychology. It addresses the question: Does where people live affect their psychological well-being? Despite the fair amount of research already available to help us answer that question, more research is still needed to really develop an understanding of the interplay between place and well-being. The final section of the chapter develops research agenda for further exploring the relation between place and well-being.

Like others around them, lesbian, gay, and bisexual people are born into families, sustain lifelong relationships with members of their birth families, and create new families of their own. This chapter reviews psychological research and theory about families of origin. Based on a life course perspective, research on adolescents and young adults is reviewed first, followed by that on middle adulthood, and then by research on relationships with families of origin in later adulthood. An overview of research and theory on families of creation is presented next, focusing on the formation and maintenance of same-sex couple relationships as well as on issues related to parenthood. A third section presents a summary of research on children and other relatives of nonheterosexual individuals. The final section provides conclusions and suggestions for further research.

Researchers are at a crucial turning point in the evolution of positive psychology. The initial period in which it was necessary for apologists of positive psychology to establish the validity and effectiveness of this new science is past. Now, they have reached the point where they can begin expanding research, assessments, and interventions to reach larger groups. In this regard, positive psychology is a vehicle for positive social change. This chapter highlights the instances in which positive psychology research and programs have been focused on addressing pressing societal issues. It then outlines the specific mechanisms by which positive psychology can positively influence societies. Finally, it argues that positive psychology presents a unique opportunity to address social ills with new tools.

People have an affective response to others based on their perceived social category. This group-based affect is influenced by the target's perceived warmth and competence, and affects subsequent behavioral tendencies toward the target. One such group-based emotion is envy, an ambivalent reaction that entails both admiration and dislike to social targets. Envied targets elicit obligatory association but often also elicit active harm when social contexts allow it. This chapter discusses the mechanisms of this volatile ambivalent social emotion within the context of social psychological research and neuroscience. In addition, it addresses social psychological questions using both neuroscience and questionnaire data. First, the chapter describes envy as an ambivalent emotion, and then places it within the stereotype content model of intergroup emotions. It then examines its cognitive, neural, and behavioral concomitant.

Rules of evidence are designed to facilitate trials by controlling what evidence may be presented at trial. Those rules came into being, and evolved over time, due to changes in trial process and structure – especially following the rise of adversarial procedure, whereby control over the marshaling and presentation of facts shifted from judges to lawyers. Refinements and reforms continue to be undertaken to try to improve the scope and clarity of the rules. Trial judges must not only apply the rules, they also have the discretion to make rulings in light of their expectations of the impact they think the evidence will have on jurors. This task involves metacognition: one human trying to estimate the thought processes of others. Thus, evidence rulemakers have been and are, effectively, applied psychologists. The rules of evidence reflect their understanding of the psychological processes affecting, and capabilities and limitations of witnesses, lawyers and jurors. Psychological research and methods provide an additional source of insight and assistance in that endeavor. Better psychological understanding should lead to more effective rules. Psychologists typically employ the scientific method: empirically testing hypotheses in an effort to discover which are valid understandings of how people perceive, store, and retrieve information. To evaluate evidence rules, one could conduct experiments directly on a rule, or borrow from existing knowledge developed in basic research and see whether those understandings support existing or proposed evidence rules.

This chapter focuses on the term “attention,” which is used in the context of psychological research. Several popular definitions of attention are presented along with definitions used by the scientific community to describe attention. However, the definitions presented do not actually define the exact meaning of attention as they revolve only around describing the characteristics or attributes of attention. The chapter discusses the components, types, and distinguishable varieties of attention along with the psychological research on it, which is divided into the classic stage and the modern stage. Different stages of the neuroscientific study of attention, including the classic stage and the stage of brain imaging, are presented. The classic stage study concluded that the complex interaction of different brain regions was associated with attention, which is endorsed by the brain imaging study.

This chapter outlines recent psychological research, especially concerning the role of emotions, to update previous work on how psychological factors impact the use of assurance strategies. It also describes how psychological concepts can help in developing strategies of assurance. Prospect theory indicates that assurance can decrease the chances that a state puts its situation within the domain of loss. It is observed that fear, anger, sadness, happiness, and disgust significantly affect decision-making. Emotion can be regarded as a practical tool of policy analysis. Collective emotion can act as a substantial constraint or enabler on the success of assurance. Thus, it can be stated that research on emotions reveals that assurance could play significantly in defusing conflict, but also that designing effective assurance strategies is intriguing. Failure to deal with the effect of emotion will only make the design of effective strategies even more difficult.

This chapter examines ethical issues relating to the practice of debriefing in deceptive research. Deception is a common method of study design in research on attitudes and behavior, especially in experimental psychology and neuroscience. Many of the most important findings of psychological research have been derived from deceptive experimentation with human subjects. Although used less frequently in clinical research, deception is not uncommon. When methodologically necessary, deception serves to promote scientific validity, which is one of the ethical requirements of research on human subjects. However, use of deception creates an ethical conundrum. This chapter first considers the various types or features of deceptive research before presenting examples of deceptive research. It then discusses the regulatory and ethical standards governing deceptive research, along with the issue of informed consent in the use of data from research subjects. It also assesses the role of debriefing as a form of public accountability in ameliorating the moral wrong of deception.

This chapter analyzes the interrogation program employed by the CIA on high-value detainees (the so-called Rendition, Detention, and Interrogation or RDI program), and argues that it constitutes mental torture under U.S. law. By extension, the argument applies to any use of similar interrogation methods. Specifically, we show through detailed textual and historical analysis that the RDI program of inducing “learned helplessness” violates the Torture Acts’ prohibition on inflicting prolonged mental harm by procedures “calculated to disrupt profoundly the human personality.” The chapter accomplishes four main things. First, it demonstrates a connection between the RDI program and previous decades’ interrogation research sponsored by the CIA. The program was not an improvisation devised by contract psychologists because the Agency lacked expertise (one of its public claims). Second, it demonstrates that the Torture Statute prohibits the methods devised through this research. Third, it demonstrates the need for a fundamental shift in the way both lawyers and commentators talk about the RDI program: de-emphasizing the short list of “enhanced interrogation techniques” approved in the well-known “torture memos,” and emphasizing instead the larger program of round-the-clock abuse aiming at personality disruption. Finally, it documents these claims with information mined from tens of thousands of pages of declassified government sources.