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Non Legato

Heinrich Schenker

in The Art of Performance

This chapter describes non legato as an articulation whereby each note receives its own pressure and whose sound duration is strictly defined. The physical means of attaining this are described as in ... More

This chapter describes non legato as an articulation whereby each note receives its own pressure and whose sound duration is strictly defined. The physical means of attaining this are described as in the model for the same effect when played by the violin or orchestra. It is argued that non legato is most appropriate in early music: in contrapuntal writing the individual notes had equal function. By contrast, the larger motivic units — a result of the synthesis in later music — require legato playing.Less

Staccato

Heinrich Schenker

in The Art of Performance

This brief chapter describes the physical means of shortening notes in a manner appropriate to the desired effect.

International Relations, International Institutions, and the European State

Andrew Hurrell and Anand Menon

in Governing Europe

This chapter takes a broad look at the impact exerted by international economic and political pressures on patterns of government and governance in Europe. It assesses the degree to which, as a ... More

This chapter takes a broad look at the impact exerted by international economic and political pressures on patterns of government and governance in Europe. It assesses the degree to which, as a consequence of the end of the Cold War and of the forces of globalization, these pressures are changing, and considers the implications of such change. It is argued in the first section of the chapter that the profound impact of the external environment on the character of the European state has been all too evident, despite the internalist tendencies of so much comparativist scholarship; moreover, West European states continue to confront several external challenges to the stability that has, since the Second World War, characterized their half of the Old Continent. The first challenge comes from the continued development of the very forces of liberalization that have played such an important role in Europe's recent past, changes that, for the sake of convenience, can be categorized under the heading of ‘globalization’; the second section examines some of the major aspects of the globalization debate as it relates to the European state, but takes a sceptical viewpoint. The second challenge comes from the changes in the international political system (the emergence of the United States as the single superpower; the collapse of the Soviet Union; the changing character of the security problems facing Europe); an emphasis on these changes can be found most prominently in the writings of US neo–realists who asserted that the end of the Cold War would inevitably result in Europe returning to its geopolitical and conflictual ‘historic norm’. In the third section it is shown why such extreme predictions have been proved wrong but nevertheless argues that the neo–realist emphasis on the international political system is, in a fundamental sense, correct.Less

Round Up the Usual Suspects!: Globalization, Domestic Politics, and Welfare State Change

Herman Schwartz

in The New Politics of the Welfare State

The first of three chapters on the sources of pressure on contemporary national welfare states, all of which seek to show how examining the sources of strain carries implications for identifying who ... More

The first of three chapters on the sources of pressure on contemporary national welfare states, all of which seek to show how examining the sources of strain carries implications for identifying who is likely to fight with whom over what; the authors of the three chapters are not of one mind on this issue. Schwartz, for whom social protection includes regulatory arrangements in sectors such as telecommunications and transportation, is most convinced that some aspects of globalization do play a critical role, and he reviews a series of broad claims about the sources of pressure on the welfare state, arguing that the impact of globalization is often misconstrued. He distinguishes alternative possible causal connections between changes in the international economy and welfare state distress, and, in many cases, finds little evidence for these causal pathways, or evidence that only supports an assessment of modest impact. He argues, however, that one dimension of globalization has been crucial: a wave of deregulatory pressures emanating from changes in the US political economy, which has led to a dramatic erosion of forms of protected employment in the affected sectors of other countries.Less

The Force of Inertia: Telecommunications in France, West Germany, and Italy 1965–87

Mark Thatcher

in Internationalisation and Economic Institutions:: Comparing the European Experience

This chapter shows why transnational technological and economic developments and regulatory reforms in the US failed to result in major institutional changes in France, West Germany, and Italy ... More

This chapter shows why transnational technological and economic developments and regulatory reforms in the US failed to result in major institutional changes in France, West Germany, and Italy between 1965 and 1987 (just before detailed EU regulation began). Traditional institutional arrangements were highly protective of national suppliers in the mid-1960s, notably publicly-owned suppliers enjoying wide monopolies. During the 1960s and 1970s, suppliers faced major problems, including lack of investment and inability to meet demand. Existing institutions were widely regarded as inefficient and unable to meet transnational technological and economic pressures. Yet even modest reforms were blocked by a determined coalition led by trade unions, employees, and political parties. Instead, policies that did not require major institutional changes were used and/or inefficiencies were tolerated. Insofar as limited reforms were made, they widened cross-national contrasts, so that the two forms of internationalisation did not lead to institutional change or convergence.Less

Modern Challenges to the Welfare State and the Antecedents of the Third Way

Rebecca Surender

in Welfare State Change: Towards a Third Way?

There has been considerable rethinking on the part of governments when it comes to social policy, in particular, about the relationships between the labour market, the family, and the state, and ... More

There has been considerable rethinking on the part of governments when it comes to social policy, in particular, about the relationships between the labour market, the family, and the state, and about the role of the state and the nature of governance. Very little of the post-war welfare settlement remains unquestioned, whether the nature of the risk addressed; the nature of entitlements and the form of conditionality to be applied; or the best means of making provision. This chapter outlines these welfare state changes and discusses possible explanations for them including political pragmatism, rapid structural change and the role of political ideas. It argues that whether referred to as ‘Third Way’ or not, many similarities in the welfare reforms adopted by industrialized welfare states can be identified. The chapter offers an examination of the US, the UK, and Australian cases to argue that in order to understand why an explicit discourse of policy reconfiguration and reform was actively embraced in some countries but avoided in others, an analysis of the impact of both the political history and constraints of institutional structures is necessary.Less

The Human Manometer (§270)

Stephen Mulhall

in Wittgenstein's Private Language: Grammar, Nonsense and Imagination in “Philosophical Investigations”, §§ 243–315

This chapter examines why should the discovery that a particular sensation (whose presence we choose to express or note by using the sign ‘S’) is correlated with a rise in blood pressure give us any ... More

This chapter examines why should the discovery that a particular sensation (whose presence we choose to express or note by using the sign ‘S’) is correlated with a rise in blood pressure give us any additional reason to think that the supposition of a mistake in identifying the sensation itself was mere show? Wittgenstein's text claims that regular misidentification of the actual sensation would not matter; for if I could tell that my blood pressure is rising despite misidentifying the sensation, that could only be on the basis of my thinking (often wrongly) that I am having that sensation. But to say that misrecognition would be an irrelevance for that reason would amount to saying that the actual presence or absence of a sensation would be an irrelevance — for the usefulness of our utterances of ‘S’ would then no longer be dependent on their being responsive to or expressive of my actually having a particular sensation. In short, if ‘S’ really is the name of a sensation, Wittgenstein's conclusion about misrecognition simply begs the question against his opponent; and if it is not, his conclusion is valid but irrelevant to its purported subject-matter.Less

Correcting the pendulum’s air pressure error

Robert James Matthys

in Accurate Clock Pendulums

This chapter describes how to calculate and remove the air pressure error from a clock's time error versus time chart. Depending on geographic location and the density of the pendulum materials, air ... More

This chapter describes how to calculate and remove the air pressure error from a clock's time error versus time chart. Depending on geographic location and the density of the pendulum materials, air pressure variations can cause roughly 2-18 seconds of error in a clock in a year's time interval. This is because the pendulum ‘floats’ in a sea of air, and variations in the air pressure make the pendulum slow down or speed up. In this chapter, the pressure error itself is described first, followed by an actual clock data run to show how the pressure error is calculated and then removed from a clock's time error versus time curve. Correcting for the pressure error corrects the clock's time to a constant average pressure at the clock site. The error is the product of the pressure difference times time. More specifically, it is the integral of the pressure difference with respect to time.Less

Electronic correction for air pressure variations

Robert James Matthys

in Accurate Clock Pendulums

At atmospheric pressure, a pendulum is slightly buoyant to a ‘sea’ of air. This buoyancy causes the pendulum's timing to be a little sensitive to the air's density, and consequently to its pressure. ... More

At atmospheric pressure, a pendulum is slightly buoyant to a ‘sea’ of air. This buoyancy causes the pendulum's timing to be a little sensitive to the air's density, and consequently to its pressure. Timing error can be corrected mechanically by putting a small bellows-supported weight on the pendulum. As the air pressure increases, the bellows shrinks and lowers the weight resting on top of it, speeding up the pendulum to compensate for its natural slowdown with increasing pressure. This assumes that the bellows' weight is located in the pendulum's upper half. If located in the lower half, the bellows-supported weight must hang below the bellows instead of sitting on top of it. The effect of the air pressure variations can also be corrected for electronically, using a silicon-based pressure sensor, some electronic circuitry, and an electromagnetic (coil and magnet) pendulum drive. This chapter describes an electronic circuit that corrects for a pendulum's air pressure variations.Less

The Changing European State: Pressures from Within

Patrick Le Galés

in Governing Europe

This chapter deals with bottom up pressures on the state. It focuses on the challenges that cities and regions are posing to the nation state in Western Europe, rather than on the rise of ... More

This chapter deals with bottom up pressures on the state. It focuses on the challenges that cities and regions are posing to the nation state in Western Europe, rather than on the rise of ‘meso–government’ in Europe. It analyses three sets of pressures (the fragmentation of the public policy process; the competition for resources (finance) and the threat of impoverishment; and the legitimacy of the nation state – the deregulation of identity structuring), and the role that they play in the transformation of the state.Less

The Institutional Terrain of the European Union

Neil Fligstein and Jason McNichol

in European Integration and Supranational Governance

Examines some historical examples of the process by which the European Union has created ‘policy domains’ in which EU jurisdiction has come to usurp that of member governments. It explores two ... More

Examines some historical examples of the process by which the European Union has created ‘policy domains’ in which EU jurisdiction has come to usurp that of member governments. It explores two related themes: first, it demonstrates that the analytical concept of a policy domain provides a useful means of describing the institutional and legislative terrain over which the EU is acquiring control; second, it describes the evolution of such domains over time, starting with their inception through treaties such as the Treaty of Rome, and their growth as a function of treaty revisions and extensions. It documents the relationship between the presence of transnational pressure groups within the EU and the production of legislation, clarifying the differences between policy domains where cooperation has remained firmly intergovernmental and those where control has effectively passed into the EU's supranational competence.Less

Introduction: Investigating the Welfare State at Century's End

Paul Pierson

in The New Politics of the Welfare State

Starts by discussing the new era of austerity in the contemporary welfare state, the reasons for it, and the political problems that it creates. Describes the project that gave rise to the book as ... More

Starts by discussing the new era of austerity in the contemporary welfare state, the reasons for it, and the political problems that it creates. Describes the project that gave rise to the book as bringing together leading researchers from Europe and North America, who seek to increase knowledge about the politics of the contemporary welfare state. The focus is on four overlapping themes, which are covered in the four main parts of the book: (1) the sources and scope of pressures on national welfare states; (2) the role of economic interests, and of systems for representing those interests, in the politics of reform; (3) the implications of electoral politics and the design of political institutions for welfare state adjustment; and (4) the distinctive policy dynamics of particular areas of social provision. These themes are intimately linked, and the linkages between them are made explicit both within and across the chapters of the book. This introduction outlines the four themes and introduces the contributions of the chapters to follow.Less

The Dynamics of Welfare State Expansion: Trade Openness, De‐industrialization, and Partisan Politics

Torben Iversen

in The New Politics of the Welfare State

This is the second of three chapters on the sources of pressure on contemporary national welfare states, all of which seek to show how examining the sources of strain carries implications for ... More

This is the second of three chapters on the sources of pressure on contemporary national welfare states, all of which seek to show how examining the sources of strain carries implications for identifying who is likely to fight with whom over what; the authors of the three chapters are not of one mind on this issue. Iversen's analysis seeks to show that de‐industrialization—caused by the dramatic increases in productivity in the manufacturing sector rather than by globalization—is the crucial motor of social change. He directly challenges a variant of the globalization thesis that has been popular among scholars: the idea that exposure to the heightened labour market risks of an open economy fuelled the expansion of the welfare state as a form of compensation. Instead, he marshals considerable evidence for the view that it is the shrinkage of the manufacturing sector, and not economic (trade) openness, that fuelled the growth of compensatory social policy. He finds little evidence in favour of the view that the various dimensions of globalization constitute a source of real threat to the contemporary welfare state.Less

Post‐Industrial Pressures on the Mature Welfare States

Paul Pierson

in The New Politics of the Welfare State

This is the third of three chapters on the sources of pressure on contemporary national welfare states, all of which seek to show how examining the sources of strain carries implications for ... More

This is the third of three chapters on the sources of pressure on contemporary national welfare states, all of which seek to show how examining the sources of strain carries implications for identifying who is likely to fight with whom over what; the authors of the three chapters are not of one mind on this issue. Here, Pierson focuses on trends within affluent democracies that constitute potential sources of the strains usually attributed to globalization. Like Iversen in the previous chapter, he highlights the role of the shift from manufacturing to services, but rather than focusing on the disruption of employment, his concern is the shift in the workforce to activities where productivity improvements are more limited; the result has been slower economic growth, which generates fiscal strain for mature welfare states. This, for Pierson, is one of a series of ‘post‐industrial shifts’ that produce severe pressures on the welfare state — others include the maturation of governmental commitments, the transformation of household structures, and population ageing. All these shifts create intense fiscal problems; in addition, social change in a context where programmes are often slow to adapt generates mismatches between the inherited capacities of welfare states and contemporary demands for social provision.Less

Comparative Institutional Advantages of Welfare State Regimes and New Coalitions in Welfare State Reforms

Philip Manow

in The New Politics of the Welfare State

This is the second of three chapters on the role of economic interests, and of systems for representing those interests, in the politics of welfare state reform. They explore the linkages between ... More

This is the second of three chapters on the role of economic interests, and of systems for representing those interests, in the politics of welfare state reform. They explore the linkages between national welfare states and national economies, and examine the processes through which economic actors press their interests on policy makers. Section 1 of Manow's chapter offers a critical account of contributions that predict the formation of new political coalitions along the cleavage line between those firms and workers that are forced to adjust to international market pressures and those that enjoy domestic shelter from globalized markets; a brief discussion is included of the relative importance of the electorate in current welfare reforms as compared with the role played by organized interests of capital and labour. Section 2 presents a transaction cost argument that seeks to identify one central logic linking production and protection in continental welfare states and coordinated market economies, respectively; the central argument is that generous welfare state programmes may enhance and not diminish international competitiveness and can be part of the comparative institutional advantage of an economy rather than solely contributing to its comparative cost disadvantage. Section 3 concludes by briefly discussing the implications of the argument presented in Sect. 2 for the present debate on the compensatory role of the welfare state in a globalized economy.Less

The Political Economy of Social Pacts: ‘Competitive Corporatism’ and European Welfare Reform

Martin Rhodes

in The New Politics of the Welfare State

This is the third of three chapters on the role of economic interests, and of systems for representing those interests, in the politics of welfare state reform; they explore the linkages between ... More

This is the third of three chapters on the role of economic interests, and of systems for representing those interests, in the politics of welfare state reform; they explore the linkages between national welfare states and national economies, and examine the processes through which economic actors press their interests on policy makers. Here Rhodes explores the implications for welfare states of nationally negotiated social pacts in bridging and making innovative linkages between social security systems and employment rules and wage bargaining. The essential argument of Sect. 1 is that the emergence of social pacts is linked to common domestic and external pressures for welfare state reform in the European Union, and that contrary to the expectations of many commentators, these pressures are neither ‘disorganizing’ European capitalism nor neutralizing the power of the state; furthermore, rather than fragmenting political‐economic structures, pressures for reform have in many instances modified or even bolstered efforts at coordination via bargaining. Section 2 introduces the notion of ‘competitive corporatism’, and shows that underpinning these social pacts are varying degrees of associational cohesion, and two types of coalition — seeking distributional deals and productivity gains — which have complex linkages and overlaps. In ideal typical terms, it can be suggested that competitive corporatism is successfully achieved if underpinned by a close but flexible interlocking of these two types of coalition, although in practice it is not always possible, as has been demonstrated in various continental European countries.Less