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The lute was the instrument on which the luthiers and string-makers of the past expended the greatest effort in order to achieve the best possible acoustic balance between the instrument and its strings. Formidable skills in the design and making of instruments were necessitated by the low tension of the strings, the sound produced simply by plucking with the fingers (rather than stroking with the bow) and the huge difference in frequency between the highest and lowest strings (especially in the versions with ten or eleven strings on the same fingerboard). The lute-makers of the Renaissance designed their instruments starting from the mechanical and acoustic properties of the strings, rather from the characteristics of existing instruments. It can thus be asserted that the lute guaranteed its success thanks to the best possible reconciliation of certain variables, in order to achieve the optimum balance between the rules of statics and acoustics.

This chapter investigates Geoffrey Hill's abiding concern with the equation of semantic and ethical recognition, his experience of language as an arena in which our ethical being is both menaced and succoured, though perhaps not secured. Hill's cogitations on this problem accompany a career‐long exploration of the question of intrinsic value, a concept which he admits has gone out of fashion but which he nonetheless attempts to rescue for his theory of language. Hill's ethics of responsibility requires that literature memorialize and memorize the dead, but his scepticism about the ability of language to do justice to its subjects forces him into a paradoxical contemplation of silence as the only responsible speech. Even so, the question of value has increasingly been posed by Hill in its public dimension, as embodying the union of civic (including political), theological (including metaphysical), and grammatical (including etymological) thought. One way Hill thinks the writer can realize intrinsic value is in the assiduous plying of words, the working in poetry of their etymology, grammar, and syntax into a high semantic pitch; this chapter pays special attention to the words that have meant the most to Hill: ‘value’, ‘atonement’, ‘endurance’, ‘patience’, ‘attention’, ‘justice’, ‘grace’, ‘pitch’, ‘common’, and ‘alienation’.

This chapter investigates the relationship between theory and practice in accentuation. It deals with the ways in which notation may imply accentuation where it is not explicitly indicated, for instance, in relation to slurs, dissonant or chromatic notes, high or low pitch, long notes, syncopation, beaming, final notes, and other factors, such as varying accentuation on the repetition of a figure. It also considers different types of accent and the ways in which they were executed. Agogic accent and related issues of ‘inequality’ are discussed with reference to the writings of Quantz, Mozart, Koch, Löhlein, Corri, Crelle, Spohr, García, Dommer, and Riemann. Charles de Bériot's instructions for different degrees of percussive accent are discussed.

This paper proposes on the basis of experimental material that pitch scaling in an intonation language such as German is relational rather than absolute. In other words, the height of a pitch accent depends on the presence of other pitch accents in the same prosodic domain. A further point made in the paper ist hat the raising of lowering of pitch accents because of information structure does not necessarily affect prosodic phrasing, which is primarily mapped to syntax.

This chapter introduces and develops the concept of pitch space, beginning with a distinction between tonal and event hierarchies. After a consideration of previous approaches, the fundamental construct of the basic space is proposed. From this construct an algebraic and geometrical model is developed that calculates the cognitive distance in diatonic space of any pitch, chord, or region (key) to any other pitch, chord, or region. The principle of the shortest path is introduced as a means for deriving time-span and prolongational structures. Empirical issues are engaged, including details of quantification, experimental support for the computed distances, connections of the model to psychoacoustics, related problems in neo-Riemannian theory, and the representation of these structures in the brain.

Using geometrical projections from the distance algorithms in the previous chapter, this chapter develops the notion of pitch-space paths in sequences of events at multiple prolongational levels. Pitch-space paths are traced in two Chopin preludes through contrasting spatial representations, including regional, chordal/regional, scale-degree, and pitch-class/chordal spaces. The exposition moves to the treatment of regional prolongations and to parallel mixture, the latter causing a collapse in regional space, with examples taken from Schubert and Wagner. An extended discussion ensues of narrative paths in Wagner's Parsifal. The chapter concludes with historical references to pitch-space paths in the music of Schubert and Schumann, and to an analogy to semantic paths in linguistic theory.

This chapter applies the pitch-space model to sequences and hierarchies of events to reveal patterns of tonal tension and attraction. Intuitions of tonal tension and relaxation correspond to distances in relation to a given reference point (the tonic). Computational methods for both sequential and hierarchical tension are developed and illustrated in a Mozart sonata. These considerations lead to a reformulation of the interaction principle. The factor of surface dissonance is incorporated into the model. Intuitions of melodic anchoring motivate the complementary theory of melodic (or voice-leading) attractions. The crucial factors in the melodic attraction rule are proximity and stability. Attractions between reciprocal pitches and chords are asymmetrical, and attractions are provisionally equated with expectancies. The melodic attraction model is extended to harmonic attraction. The relationship between tonal tension and attraction is discussed, as are connections to other theories.

The new musical language that emerged in the early 20th century seems to have been motivated, at least in part, by the need to reflect — even express — the new literary, psychological, and philosophical principles that surfaced in the new art-form of these symbolist operas. The transformation of the more linear, defined quality of the traditional major/minor scales into the more diffuse, static effects created by the use of modality, polymodality, and symmetrical pitch-set interactions resonated with the modernistic conception of the human being, who is perennially divided and threatened by the split between the conscious and the unconscious mind. The symbolic connotation of symmetrical pitch relations has similarities with Matte Blanco's concept of “the unconscious as infinite sets”. Also discussed is the creative process and social context, in which the text narratives are impacted by the ideological trends of the time, not only in what they say, but also in what they omit. Both operas have meanings that must be decoded. Analysis of these works stems from the point of view of dynamic psychology. The chapter touches on various psychological and social (gender) issues as addressed by György Lukacs and Béla Balázs.

This chapter discusses the transfer of the parameters of natural expression to synthesis systems following current inadequate descriptions of natural speech, which highlights problems in deriving adequate descriptions of expression and emotion. Voice quality, timing, and pitch contour all contribute — but quantifying these observations is currently incomplete and open to further research. Defining emotion in terms of acoustic correlates is discussed along with the variability in speech to which emotive content contributes. The non-uniqueness of acoustic correlates is emphasized, and the need for differentiating between high-level and low-level synthesis in the theoretical underpinning is discussed.

This introductory chapter discusses how sound waves are generated by musical instruments, travel to the ear of a listener, and there evoke the sensation of music. Using the example of an orchestral score, the musical descriptors pitch, loudness, and timbre are related to scientifically measurable features of the sound waves, including frequency, amplitude, waveform, and spectrum. The distinction between travelling and standing waves is explained. The roles of the outer, middle, and inner ears in hearing musical sounds are briefly described. The importance of harmonic frequency spectra in pitch perception is emphasized, and a discussion of pitch intervals includes an introduction to musical temperaments. The relationship between decibel measurements of sound intensity and musical dynamic markings is discussed, and attempts to provide quantitative descriptions of timbre are reviewed.

This chapter describes the basic acoustical characteristics of unpitched and pitched percussion instruments, including the functions of beaters (hammers). The history and development of percussion instruments commonly scored for is summarized, considering the xylophone, glockenspiel, triangle, cymbals, bells, gongs, and drums, including side or snare drums, bass drum, kettledrums (timpani), and tambourine. The contemporary use of percussion, including the drum kit, is outlined. Methods of tuning glockenspiel and xylophone bars are described, and brief descriptions of traditional bellfounding and drumhead preparation are given as examples of the varied techniques involved in making percussion instruments. Playing techniques are explored, including the choice of beaters, stick technique, and timpani tuning.

This chapter discusses the acoustical principles underlying the behaviour of plucked and hammered stringed instruments, including the effects of the point of attack and the nature of the plectrum or hammer on the frequency spectrum and timbre of the sound. The significance of the feel of a string and the technique of pitch bending are explained. A survey of the historical development of plucked and hammered stringed instruments includes descriptions of lyre, psaltery, cittern, dulcimer, and cimbalom; and discussions of the evolution of harps, lute, and guitars. The construction and functioning of the modern lute and guitar are described, and current methods of performance on harp, lute, and classical guitar are outlined.

This chapter examines in depth the revisions of Atar Arad, Csaba Erd'lyi, Peter Bartók, and Donald Maurice with reference to the overall chronology of the revisions, the degree of revision, and cross-influence between revisionists. The revisions are systematically compared with Tibor Serly's version and also with each other, under categories of structure, orchestration, tempo, phrasing, and pitches in the viola part. Mention is made of the cultural and musical background of the revisionists and to what degree those factors influenced musical decisions. While for the most part the comparisons are objective observations, some judgments on the relative success of decisions taken by the revisionists are made, including retrospective reservations about some decisions in the author's own unpublished revision.

This chapter focuses on those aspects of the work that a revisionist must consider when transforming the manuscript into a performable work. Under the subheadings of structure, melody, pitch organization, rhythm and orchestration, and texture, examples are identified where analysis of similar occurrences in other works may offer solutions to ambiguities in the Viola Concerto. These other works include the Fourth String Quartet, Music for Strings, Percussion and Celeste, Second Piano Concerto, Second Violin Concerto, and Fifth String Quartet. An extended contribution from Elliott Antokoletz provides much insight into the aspect of tonality and on note selection in the heavily ornamented section in the last movement, centred on the use of the octatonic scale and polymodal chromaticism. A consideration of Bartók's practices in other works under the abovementioned subheadings is illuminating.