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Cross Talk between the Autonomic and Central Nervous Systems: Mechanistic and Therapeutic Considerations for Neuronal, Immune, Vascular, and Somatic-Based Diseases

Fuad Lechin and Bertha van der Dijs

in Neurovascular Medicine: Pursuing Cellular Longevity for Healthy Aging

This chapter summarizes anatomical, physiological, pathophysiological, pharmacological, immunological, and some therapeutic information dealing with most types of diseases. Evidence is presented to ... More

This chapter summarizes anatomical, physiological, pathophysiological, pharmacological, immunological, and some therapeutic information dealing with most types of diseases. Evidence is presented to support the notion that clinical symptoms (cardiovascular, gastrointestinal, respiratory, dermatological, nephrological, rheumatological, hematological, endocrinological, and others) depend on central nervous system (CNS) disorders that project to the peripheral organs throughout the peripheral autonomic nervous system (ANS) and neuroendocrine pathways. In addition, psychological disorders such as depression and psychosis also provoke ANS, hormonal, and immunological disorders that are responsible for different somatic symptoms. The chapter also demonstrates that the adrenal glands are hypoactive during both childhood and senescence. This peripheral ANS profile explains why they are affected by specific pathophysiological disorders that are rarely observed in young adult subjects. This chapter also presents data emanating from the routine assessment of circulating neurotransmitters that showed that diseases are underlain by peripheral nervous system or adrenal sympathetic overactivity.Less

Mechanisms of peripheral neuropathic pain

Martin Koltzenburg

in The Neurobiology of Pain: (Molecular and Cellular Neurobiology)

Most lesions of the peripheral nervous system (PNS) or central nervous system (CNS) do not produce chronic pain. Conditions in which damage of the nervous system does cause pain are a paradox as ... More

Most lesions of the peripheral nervous system (PNS) or central nervous system (CNS) do not produce chronic pain. Conditions in which damage of the nervous system does cause pain are a paradox as impairment of nerve fibres carrying nociceptive information in the PNS or CNS should result in a decrease of pain sensibility (hypo- or analgesia). Thus, the presence of pain after neural injury implies qualitative changes of the neurobiological mechanisms encoding pain. In fact, it is one of the puzzles of pain that lesions of peripheral and central pathways normally signalling pain, rather than those subserving non-nociceptive functions, are the culprit of neuropathic pain. This chapter reviews the neural basis that contributes to this altered pain sensibility in peripheral nerve disease.Less

Axonal Regeneration in the Central Nervous System of Mammals

Isabel Klusman and Martin E. Schwab

in Neuroglia

This chapter discusses axonal regeneration in the adult mammalian central nervous system (CNS). In contrast to the situation in the peripheral nervous system (PNS), where injured axons often ... More

This chapter discusses axonal regeneration in the adult mammalian central nervous system (CNS). In contrast to the situation in the peripheral nervous system (PNS), where injured axons often regenerate successfully over long distances, axonal regeneration is minimal or absent in the adult mammalian CNS. Therefore, CNS trauma often results in severe and permanent deficits.Less

Mollusca: Gastropoda

Elena E. Voronezhskaya and Roger P. Croll

in Structure and Evolution of Invertebrate Nervous Systems

Gastropods comprise the second largest metazoan taxon, with about 60,000 to 80,000 living species occupying ecological niches covering the globe. Anatomy, behaviour, and development vary ... More

Gastropods comprise the second largest metazoan taxon, with about 60,000 to 80,000 living species occupying ecological niches covering the globe. Anatomy, behaviour, and development vary significantly between Patellogastropoda, Vetigastropoda, Neritimorpha, Caenogastropoda, and Heterobranchia. Generally, the central nervous system consists of paired cerebral, buccal, pleural, and pedal ganglia and five ganglia of the visceral loop, but the ganglia demonstrate various degrees of asymmetry (chiastoneury, euthyneury) and fusion due to the combined processes of centralization and torsion, which is an 180° rotation of the posterior portion of the body, occurring early in larval development. Giant, identifiable neurons with characteristic locations, axonal morphology, and physiological properties have led to the adoption of some heterobranchs as ‘model organisms’ for investigation of motor and central pattern generation activity, molecular basis of learning and memory, and single cell transcriptomes. Gastropods possess extensive peripheral nervous systems containing axons efferent and afferent to the central ganglia, and also large numbers of peripheral neurons located within different organs. Most of the classical, small molecule neurotransmitters are also found in the central and peripheral neurons of gastropods, together with numerous neuropeptides. The first neural elements (cells of the apical organ, posterior pioneer neurons, peripheral sensory neurons) and also many central neurons appear during trochophore-veliger larval stages, although many more neurons are added during metamorphosis and postlarval development. Gastropods thus provide a unique diversity of form, function, and development of the nervous system, offering the opportunity to investigate adaptive evolution of the nervous system ranging from behaviour to its molecular underpinnings.Less

Oligodendrocyte and Schwann Cell Injury

Jennifer K. Ness and Mark P. Goldberg

in Neuroglia

Oligodendrocytes and Schwann cells are responsible for synthesis and maintenance of myelin in the central nervous system (CNS) and peripheral nervous system (PNS), respectively, and therefore are ... More

Oligodendrocytes and Schwann cells are responsible for synthesis and maintenance of myelin in the central nervous system (CNS) and peripheral nervous system (PNS), respectively, and therefore are critical for function in health and disease. Damage to myelin is a common feature in many neurological disorders, leading to delayed or blocked axonal conduction, secondary damage to axons, and possible permanent neurological dysfunction. There is growing recognition that oligodendrocytes and Schwann cells are uniquely vulnerable to a number of injury mechanisms. This chapter reviews molecular mechanisms leading to death in oligodendrocyte and Schwann cell lineages, including pathways triggered by oxidative stress, excitotoxicity, inflammatory mediators, and trophic factor deprivation. It also considers cell-cell interactions involved in white matter damage and the implications for clinical outcomes as well as potential avenues of treatment.Less

Failure of CNS regeneration

James W. Fawcett, Anne E. Rosser, and Stephen B. Dunnett

in Brain Damage, Brain Repair

Axons in the mammalian peripheral nervous system (PNS) regenerate well. Axons in the adult mammalian central nervous system (CNS), however, do not spontaneously regenerate, with the result that any ... More

Axons in the mammalian peripheral nervous system (PNS) regenerate well. Axons in the adult mammalian central nervous system (CNS), however, do not spontaneously regenerate, with the result that any injury that cuts axons, such as spinal-cord injury, will not recover. Clearly a central feature of CNS repair will have to be the induction of axon regeneration. In principle, axon growth is a collaborative process that involves a dialogue between the axon and the environment it is trying to penetrate. Whether an axon will regenerate or not, therefore, depends on the regenerative efforts made by the axon, on the inhibitory or permissive molecules in the environment, and on the receptors for these molecules on the axonal surface. This chapter examines these various factors and their effects on CNS axon regeneration.Less

Motor, sensory, and autonomic function: With Charlotte Behan and Roger Barker

James W. Fawcett, Anne E. Rosser, and Stephen B. Dunnett

in Brain Damage, Brain Repair

This chapter concentrates on the anatomical substrate underlying elements of the motor, sensory, and autonomie systems, both within the central and peripheral nervous systems, and explains how this ... More

This chapter concentrates on the anatomical substrate underlying elements of the motor, sensory, and autonomie systems, both within the central and peripheral nervous systems, and explains how this relates to clinical assessment. It then discusses how this clinical assessment is applied as a research tool, in conjunction with supplementary investigations, to quantify the degree and rate of progression of neurological deficits for a number of specific conditions—multiple sclerosis (MS), Parkinson's disease (PD), and Huntington's disease (HD)—and how this can be used to evaluate new therapies.Less

The Masterpiece

Jean-Didier Vincent and Laurence Garey

in The Custom-Made Brain: Cerebral Plasticity, Regeneration, and Enhancement

This chapter discusses the two divisions of the nervous system. Specifically, it examines the different features of the brain. The nervous system is composed of sections: the peripheral and the ... More

This chapter discusses the two divisions of the nervous system. Specifically, it examines the different features of the brain. The nervous system is composed of sections: the peripheral and the central. The peripheral nervous system deals with the relations of the organism to its external environment. It transmits information from various sensory receptors to the brain. It also intervenes in the regulation of major vital functions, maintaining the equilibrium of our internal environment by coordinating such essential activities as digestion, the circulation of the blood, respiration, and the secretion of hormones. In conjunction with the peripheral, the central nervous system integrates the information it receives and coordinates the activity of all parts of the bodies through the brain. The brain consists of two distinct regions—the cerebral cortex, which provides epigenetic regulation, and the subcortical regions, which enables an individual to adapt to its environment.Less

Peripheral nerve regeneration

James W. Fawcett, Anne E. Rosser, and Stephen B. Dunnett

in Brain Damage, Brain Repair

Mammals have retained the ability to regenerate axons in the peripheral nervous system (PNS) and, if properly treated, can regain much of the function that is lost after peripheral nerve damage. Not ... More

Mammals have retained the ability to regenerate axons in the peripheral nervous system (PNS) and, if properly treated, can regain much of the function that is lost after peripheral nerve damage. Not only do the axons regenerate in the periphery, but they restore functional motor connections with muscles, and functional sensory connections with the skin. Nevertheless, peripheral nerve repair is seldom perfect, due both to problems of axon guidance and to other factors that can limit regeneration. There are, therefore, several problems that need to be solved before a regenerated peripheral nerve can completely restore normal function.Less

Actions of neuromodulators Actions of neuromodulators

Malcolm Burrows

in The Neurobiology of an Insect Brain

The vast number of substances identified as potential neuromodulators means that any assessment of their actions will be complex. What role do the neurons containing these substances play in the ... More

The vast number of substances identified as potential neuromodulators means that any assessment of their actions will be complex. What role do the neurons containing these substances play in the expression of behaviour? Are these substances released locally at specific sites in the central and peripheral nervous system? Is their release more widespread so that they will affect many neurons at the same time, assuming, that is, that the neurons have the appropriate receptors? Can we predict the likely effect of a particular substance when it is present in a cocktail of many others? Clues to the answers of at least some of these questions can be gained by restricting attention to a few modulatory substances and to the actions of particular neurons that contain these substances. Much of the following description thus relates to the action of the efferent DUM neurons and the effects of octopamine.Less

Concluding Remarks

István Aranyosi

in The Peripheral Mind: Philosophy of Mind and the Peripheral Nervous System

The chapter offers a brief overview of the main conclusions reached in the previous chapters.