Search Results

The introduction to this chapter highlights the high culture of the priestly editors of Leviticus and Numbers and the fact that they were writing for each other in a once fashionable style that used structural devices such as verbal and thematic parallelism and ambiguity, but was fast becoming esoteric, obscure, and archaic; in other words, there was a vast gulf between the editor‐priests and their congregations. The author's interpretation of Leviticus and Numbers has been attacked as improbable on the grounds that if it was correct it would have been anticipated before: structural clues would have been noticed. The argument advanced here is that the two books have not before been searched for clues to their structure – such a search was not the approach of the early rabbis, nor was it possible in the period after the priestly editors had gone by the time of the destruction of the Second Temple, for the Levites who had succeeded to their role were less learned. The various sections of the chapter first look at the characteristics of the Levite interpretation of the Pentateuch, Bishop Lowth's eighteenth‐century discovery of biblical parallelism, parallelism as a typical convention of Semitic literature, and Mishnaic parallelism. The remaining sections present a detailed analysis of the structure of the Book of Leviticus: the prominent role of impurity in relation to the protection of the tabernacle from contamination but the concomitant inclusion of the poor and the stranger; the altar as focus of religion in the form, represented in Leviticus by the use of the desert tabernacle as an architectural model of the Book itself; and features of the style of Leviticus – the two violent events in Chs 10 and 24 (which divide the Book into three parts), the designation of the Book as one of three parts with three centres (Chs 8–10, 18–20 and 25–27), and its mid‐turn, which is centred at Ch. 19.

Early childhood failures on false-belief tasks and related tasks lead many developmental psychologists to conclude that children (like scientists) undergo a succession of changes in their mental-state theories, especially changes from a non-representational to a representational theory. Early errors in belief attribution are viewed as the product of a “conceptual deficit” rather than performance limitations. Other evidence, however, suggests that performance factors like memory and inhibitory control problems are at least partly responsible. Recent experiments with reduced task demands enabled children as young as 15 months to show understanding of false belief. Child-scientist advocates usually hold that theoretical inference is used for both first-person and third-person mindreading, but there is evidence that undercuts first-person/third-person parallelism.

Most cognitive scientists and many philosophers of mind resist the traditional notion that the mind has a special method of monitoring or accessing its own current mental states. We review the critiques of both philosophers (Wittgenstein, Burge, Shoemaker) and cognitive scientists (Gazzaniga, Nisbett and Wilson, Gopnik), based on confabulation or self/other parallelism, and find all to be wanting. We then examine the more congenial monitoring account of Nichols and Stich, but find it incapable of handling the problem of attitude-type identification. A nuanced special-method approach is presented that combines introspection (inner recognition) for self-attributing state-types and redeployment for self-attributing attitude contents. The question of what the input-properties are for introspection is addressed at length.

This chapter marks the importance of aesthetics in Michaelis’s recovery of a classical Israel. Building on the work of English critic Robert Lowth, Michaelis argued that the psalms and prophecies of the Old Testament could be fruitfully analyzed as “biblical poetry” or “ancient Israelite poetry,” apart from their theological or religious value. Lowth, the inventor of Hebrew parallelism, and Michaelis were important figures in the eighteenth-century turn toward a primitive yet sublime poetics of feeling. As this chapter shows, though, “biblical poetry” was not a discovery but an invention. This new concept allowed scholars to operate independently of scriptural frameworks for understanding the Bible, namely, the canons by which religious communities organize their Bibles. Those grouped as “prophets,” for example, could just as well be classed with “poets” found in all parts of the Bible, thus transforming them from foretellers of Christ into poets of personal passion.

This chapter introduces co-compounds and their basic formal, semantic, and use-oriented (distributional) properties, as well as tight coordination patterns, such as bare binomials, which have in common with co-compounds the expression natural coordination. It is argued that co-compounds are not a form of parallelism, even if they share the use of word pairs with some forms of parallelism and word association. The chapter provides a brief historical survey of co-compounds in the literature in spoken and in sign languages, and a general outline of the methods and material used in the study. Crucial issues in semantics relevant for the study are discussed, including taxonomy, cover meanings, semantic relativity, and contextual semantic sharpening.

This is the last of five chapters on the text of the Old Testament, and discusses Hebrew poetry in the context of the Hebrew (Old Testament) Bible. The introductory section looks at recent work on the discovery of the verse traditions of the ancient Near East, and discusses the difficulty of reading Hebrew poetry, the Hebrew poet's resources (tradition versus innovation) and the poet's voice and the lyrical first person singular (the lyrical ‘I’). The second section discusses the issue of differentiating between prose and poetry, the third discusses metre and rhythm, and the fourth discusses parallelism. Further sections discuss building blocks (line, half‐line, and couplet), the segmentation of poems, repetition, the exploitation of sound, figurative language, and poetic diction. The last section of the chapter looks at the matter of holding the reader's attention.

This chapter demonstrates that direct investment constitutes a classic cross-sectional activity falling, prima facie, within the ambit of free movement of capital and the freedom of establishment. The configuration of the relationship of those two competing freedoms can have a severe impact on the scope of Article 56 (1) EC in a third-country context and is therefore brought into focus. It is argued that free movement of capital and the freedom of establishment are inextricably linked to each other with respect to the cross sectional activity of direct investment. The different aspects of the economic activity cannot be separated in a comprehensible and clear cut fashion. Only the densification of the freedoms can prevent an economic aspect of the activity being exposed to potentially unjustified discrimination or hindrance. Only in this way it is guaranteed that the freedoms are not deprived of their effectiveness in a situation in which an economic activity falls potentially into the ambit of more than one freedom.

This chapter addresses quantum information transmission and processing. Quantum noise is dominant in long-haul transmission lines, even for strong signals. Amplifier noise is avoided by using a noise-free amplifier. Injecting a strongly squeezed state into an unused port of a coupler reduces branching noise. The next section explains the no-cloning theorem and the theory and experimental evidence for (imperfect) quantum cloning machines. The use of single photons for secure quantum key distribution in cryptography is then discussed. Entanglement as a quantum resource first appears in the explanation of quantum dense coding and the inverse process of quantum teleportation. The chapter ends with a brief discussion of quantum computing, including quantum parallelism, quantum logic gates, and quantum circuits. A survey of experiments in quantum computing is followed by a study of proposals for combining linear optics with local measurements to construct quantum computers.

This chapter identifies the units of structure in the Book of Numbers. Instead of unwarranted interruption, the periodic switch back and forth between the law sections and narrative sections is more like montage or cinema flash-backs. Rather than judge the book severely because the laws interrupt the narrative, the chapter finds that it is composed deliberately of two strands, one of law and one of narrative. By introducing the alternative mode each new section cuts off the previous section: the result is a pattern of alternating strands. In Numbers the sections are marked off automatically by stylistic rules which anyone can check, without making reference to the themes developed within a section. The two modes, story and law, differ in their treatment of time. The chapter demonstrates that they are an elaboration of the well-known poetic structure of parallelism which is typical of Hebrew poetry.

This chapter examines early visual processing in birds revealed by the analysis of multi-element textured arrays. Pigeons, and presumably most other species of birds, share many common properties with humans regarding the early registration and grouping of visual information. Overall, perceptual grouping involves spatially parallel processes that cover an extensive area of their frontal visual field. Initially, this information is separated into different streams that map the features of visual dimensions like color, orientation, brightness, and likely other features associated with different shapes, such as terminations, angles, parallelism, or curvature. The critical outputs from these different streams are the identity and location of linear edges and boundaries and their relation to larger homogeneous regions of highly similar elements. These outputs are critically involved in the construction of object shape and surface relations, as well as in the determination of figure-ground status. These different streams converge to produce a multidimensional map where this information is combined.

This chapter describes the metaphysical doctrines in the Ethics that are most important to Spinoza's moral theory, including substance monism, necessity, determinism, mind–body parallelism, the denial of teleology in nature, and naturalism. It is argued that Spinoza's metaphysical doctrines are generally connected to his moral theory in four different ways. They show that central notions of received morality, including the notions of a providential God and of free will, are based upon false beliefs. They constrain Spinoza's revisionary moral theory. They form a basis for some of the revisionary theory's central arguments. Finally, God, as characterized by the metaphysical doctrines of Part 1 of the Ethics, is that the knowledge of which is the highest good of the mind.

This chapter reviews the question of the literary genre of Avot in an attempt to understand the type of composition created by Avot's editor. The first section situates Avot within the wisdom tradition after a brief overview of the major trends in wisdom scholarship. Since Avot expresses traditional wisdom themes by means of artistic literary forms, the tractate belongs to the literary genre of Jewish wisdom. The second section considers the artistic prose of Avot, examining three essential poetic features of the Avot sayings: the presence of the rhythmic prose, poetic parallelisms, and carefully planned literary structures. It demonstrates that Avot is a more artistic and poetic literary creation than generally believed. The third section considers why wisdom was expressed as a speech art in Avot.

This chapter and the previous one trace the impact of institutional positioning and collective identity negotiations on VOTF affiliates’ attempts to address movement goals. This chapter focuses specifically on the goals of supporting priests of integrity and structural change within the church, allowing affiliates to address larger issues that might have enabled the abuse. It also identifies three paths for IISMs in response to their movement environment: institutional integration, parallelism, and independence. Affiliates varied in their chosen path based upon their reception by local Catholic leaders.

The parallel between saying something and articulating a more informative statement and saying something and articulating the more informative implies that such can apply for both positive and negative statements. Examining the parallelism of the implications brought about by scalar items and negation proves to be, however, somewhat deceptive since such examination may seem more informative than merely looking into the logical consequences of “what is said.” This chapter also looks into the “Horn Scale” which involves a condition in sentence construction that concerns the ordering of the words. Also, the chapter provides examples of sentences that exemplify the use of Grice's First Maxim of Quantity and the other Maxims of Quality.

This chapter argues that paradigm uniformity (PU) effects ultimately show that, while the move towards parallelism initiated by OT was much on the right track, the degree of parallelism in the system is in fact more extensive, concerning not only the internal structure of phonology, but also the relationship between phonology and morphology. It further argues that the mental calculations or ‘processing’ required by phonology and morphology are not only parallel, but also ‘distributed’, indeed as in ‘Parallel Distributed Processing’ — the formal term for connectionism. The chapter proceeds as follows. Sections 4.2 and 4.3 argue that representations influence or ‘attract’ each other to a degree that is inversely related to their geometrical or global distance. Section 4.4 argues that the role of global distance reveals that mental representations have fundamental properties of neural nets, and also that a major factor behind the Optimality Theory (OT) notion of OO-F is precisely the noted attraction effect. Section 4.5 elaborates further on the proposal of Section 4.4, pointing to additional consequences of significance. Section 4.6 suggests that a coherent and improved approach to morphology can also be developed from this perspective, one that further defines the OO-F relations at work within the phonology in terms of morphological relations. Section 4.7 reviews the typology of PU effects, showing that it is captured by the present approach though not by traditional means.

This chapter studies Mitchell's intricate melodic structures. The first section shows how she devises variations on standard popular song forms. The second section examines her nonformulaic approach to phrase structure. Proportions are often irregular due to harmonic extension and metric disruption. Phrases relate to one another through patterns of parallelism, contrast, and complementarity (“open/closed” pairings). The third section explores expressive effects made possible through melodic contour, and characterizes two dramatic paradigm shifts in her approach to melody.

Describes in what way Spinoza was a dualist and in what way a monist; his pantheism and its relation to atheism; his very special version of the so‐called ontological argument for the existence of God; his mind–body parallelism and rejection of mind–body interaction. His resolute naturalism: Wittgenstein's mockery about the mind as ‘a queer sort of medium’ hits Descartes but not Spinoza.

Spinoza's bad arguments for his thesis of mind–body parallelism are discussed. Then a close analysis of the great scholium to IIp7 leads to a much better argument. This brings in Spinoza's definition of ‘attribute’, a much‐controverted item, which can be seen to be plain and simple and the right thing for him to say, as soon as one attends carefully to its actual wording. The chapter also discuses and explains Spinoza's use of ‘express’: attributes that express God's essence, and so do modes.

The previous chapter defined the principle of Minimize Forms and formulated some form minimization predictions. This chapter is organized as follows. Section 4.1 illustrates and tests these predictions using some of Greenberg’s (1966) markedness hierarchies. Section 4.2 tests the same hierarchies on diachronic data from an evolving language family (Germanic). Section 4.3 considers ‘grammaticalization’ phenomena in relation to MiF and processing. Section 4.4 illustrates the general points made about grammaticalization with a brief case study involving definiteness marking. Section 4.5 considers how forms can be minimized on the basis of processing enrichments through structural parallelism, continuing the general discussion of processing enrichment that was initiated in Section 3.2.3. Section 4.6 considers enrichments made on the basis of dependency assignments. This leads to a discussion of the constituent-command constraint on many dependencies and to a general principle of Conventionalized Dependency.