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This introductory chapter provides the meaning and overview of psychological capital or PsyCap. After first providing the current perspective and need for PsyCap, attention is given to the contributions of positive psychology, positive organizational scholarship (POS), and positive organizational behavior (POB). Particular emphasis is given to the POB definitional inclusion criteria of theory, research, measurement, “state-like” development, and performance impact. The balance of the chapter then introduces the criteria-meeting positive resource capacities of self-efficacy (confidence), hope, optimism, and resiliency and, when combined, the second-order, core construct of psychological capital. The concluding sections support psychological capital as a type of psychological resource theory, how it is measured and developed, and future directions for research and practice.

This introductory chapter begins with brief a discussion of how we are trapped by behaviour patterns that exist at all levels of organizations. Traps are created when the problems to be solved are likely to be upsetting and threatening to all concerned. These Traps inhibit effective problem solving and inhibit the detection and correction of errors. It then sets out the purpose of the book, which is to examine the advice of thought leaders writing about organizations and their management. It focuses on three topics: leadership, culture, and organization design. An overview of the subsequent chapters is presented.

This chapter reviews recent studies examining the link between employee envy and a host of organizational outcomes at the individual and group level, from poorer leader-member exchange, lower job satisfaction, less liking for co-workers, lower organization-based self-esteem, lower group performance, higher turnover, higher absence rates, higher social loafing, to increased performance in some instances. It shows that the role of envy in organizational life is complex. Some organizations can purposely encourage envy among employees because of its apparent motivational benefits. Whether this is good or bad, all things considered, has no pat answer. The chapter also summarizes findings on the link between envy and moral disengagement in organizational settings. It appears that people who are envious can commit harmful acts in a guilt-free manner by rationalizing their harmful behavior. This allows them to avoid personal responsibility for their actions. Envy seems to be especially conducive to both harmful acts and to moral disengagement.

This chapter begins with an assessment of where we are with the theory, research, and application of positivity in the workplace in general and positive organizational behavior (POB)/ psychological capital (PsyCap) in particular. Special attention is initially given to the traditional role of positivity in organizational research. It then presents an overview of a parallel development to POB/PsyCap—positive organizational scholarship (POS). The chapter discusses the similarities and differences between POB/PsyCap and POS, and then briefly critiques the positively oriented self-help fads found in the popular literature. It makes an in-depth examination and assessment of where we are on all aspects of positive PsyCap. The remainder of the chapter uses this platform to launch into where PsyCap needs to go, needed future theory building, research, and practice.

Behaviours – observable and covert – exhibited in the workplace are studied under the discipline of organisational behaviour (OB). These manifestations are caused by personal traits, environment happenings, and the manner these factors interact with one another. Although there have been several inquiries regarding personal traits as indicative of such activities, the authors focus on the impact of culture (as part of situational factors) on organisational behaviour. Interestingly, there are various fundamental motivations and requirements in the publication of books about behavioural patterns from a cross-cultural paradigm. Among these are the appropriate frameworks, specifically on the topics of goals, job satisfaction, training and development of employees, compensation schemes, performance evaluations, recruitment, commitment, and turnover. Since most of the research participants came from the United States, the generalisation and applicability of the conclusions and recommendations is limited.

In the attempt to manage human resources in the most effective and satisfactory manner, noteworthy attention is placed on developing appropriate tools to further understand employee reactions. Although there are various theories that can account for the analysis of organisational behaviour, this chapter concentrates on the cultural self-presentation framework, which is based on the propositions of cognitive knowledge processing. It suggests associations between the macro-level cultural elements and the micro-level behaviours through the idea that the self is an information processor and an endower of meanings that are anchored on mental templates derived from education and socialisation. Differences in orientation can affect the reactions of staff to the policies of corporations.

Why do people at work behave the way they do? As is evident from any organizational psychology textbook or course outline, a range of theories, models, and constructs are used to understand behaviour at work. Some approaches look to the organizational context or environment to explain behaviour. The job characteristics approach, for example, seeks to identify how particular features of jobs impact on employee behaviour. Other approaches look at the characteristics of individuals rather than the context to find ways of explaining behaviour. This book reviews and critically evaluates psychological contract research and theory, and considers practical applications of the psychological contract from an organizational psychology perspective. This perspective is similar to those found in other disciplines such as organizational behaviour and work psychology.

This chapter offers a synthesis and an integration of corporate behavioural patterns based on a cross-cultural approach. Because the volume intends to analyse and predict organisational behaviours across various cultures, the authors formulated the cultural self-representation model. Such an approach starts with the realisation that some managerial strategies are ineffective and inefficient. This is followed by the identification of diverse cultural typologies about work values and predilections; however, these templates are not sufficient to support the equivalence of culture and behaviours of employees. The third step in the conceptualisation refers to the discovery of current theories that would be sufficient enough to facilitate the comprehensiveness of cultural influences. In the course of enhancing the components of the framework, self-regulatory processes – monitoring, evaluating, and responding – are included.

This chapter argues that, although there is mixed evidence about the link between emotional intelligence (EI) and workplace applications, steadily maturing research in the field is providing increasing confidence regarding the predictive ability of EI. It provides a broad overview of EI in organizational-behaviour research and industrial and organisational (I/O) psychology, including a review of applications and coverage of some of the contentious issues in the field. The chapter concludes by placing EI research within the context of the wider framework of research on the role of emotions in organizational settings.

Leadership's definition has posed great challenges in exploring its dimensions and consequences for organisational behaviour. This section focuses on leadership models with respect to cultural diversity, and the major hypothesis is that culture-based symbols and legends determine effective management of people. One of these is the power-oriented paradigm, which concentrates on the ways a leader acquires and employs authority to influence others. The trait approach deals with the personal traits required to stand out and lead, while the behaviour model seeks to classify appropriate individuals through their initiative, success level of undertakings, kind of relationships, and orientation. Another is the interactive theory, which states that leadership effectiveness and likeability are determined by the association between the person and the environmental factors. All of these are consolidated in order to formulate a better perspective in the form of Cultural Self-Representation.

The literature on culture suggests that Traps and culture are phenomena that are beyond the individual level of analysis. Traps and culture can be conceptualized as ‘supra’ human phenomena with a causality of their own. This chapter argues that this perspective is flawed. Generalizations about cultural change contain fundamental inconsistencies and gaps that can only be overcome by rejecting the claim that Traps are seemingly part of the sociological level. It is counterproductive to separate the individual from the sociological level. Indeed, without including the individual level of analysis, attempts to reduce Traps will not only fail, they will actually strengthen Traps. This, in turn, will result in inconsistencies and gaps that will strengthen the perseverance of Traps and the flawed generalizations about them. The chapter illustrates the reasoning behind this claim by describing several patterns of responses that were identified when reviewing the literature on culture.

This chapter provides a conceptual and integrative summary of the book. The theory of evolution by natural selection is one of the most well supported theories in science, and it has had a profound influence the modern life sciences. Yet, biological and evolutionary perspectives are rare in organizational behavior. This chapter discusses historical and paradigmatic reasons why scholars in OB may have been reluctant to incorporate biological and evolutionary psychological perspectives, argues why a biological perspective is needed, and explains how a biological perspective can be helpful to and compatible with OB scholarship. Pointing out that interdisciplinary collaboration among biologists and social scientists is becoming increasingly important as we learn more about the biological mechanisms influencing human behavior, the chapter argues for incorporating increased biological and evolutionary perspectives in theory and research in OB.

Debates revolving on individualism and collectivism comprise the main concern of this section. Individualism asserts independence in decision making and goal setting without considering the opinions, capabilities, and welfare of others, even those who are part of the same community; while collectivism states that groups are the primary units and determinants of the undertakings of societies. Such topics have motivated scholars to explore their dimensions and implications because interpersonal relationships – whether inside or outside the work setting – are essential in the determination and understanding of organisational behaviour. Determination of whether a group of people operate under the notions of either individualism or collectivism affects the work relationships, especially the extent of coordination and cooperation, which contribute to the employees' performance and tenure.

As organizations are large groups, and consist of many subgroups, evolutionary theorizing would seem very relevant to understand behaviour in organizations. Applying evolutionary thinking to organizations may help understand why people in organizations behave the way they do, even if these behaviours seem counterproductive or irrational. We first discuss how the human brain seems to have evolved particularly to deal with living in large groups. We suggest that comparing oneself with others seems a basic human characteristic that may have various positive and negative consequences for individuals, as well as for organizations. Next, we focus on intrasexual competition, and discuss how this may lead not only to investing in one’s career, but also to gossip, bullying and conspicuous consumption. Finally, we discuss the role of altruistic behaviour within organizations, and link this also to intrasexual competition. An evolutionary perspective does not provide unequivocal recommendations for organizational practice, but it may help understand why some persistent problems in organizations continue to occur.

This chapter summarizes the discussions in the preceding chapters. It argues that in order to reduce Traps, we must begin by addressing Model I theories-in-use and defensive reasoning. Traps cannot be reduced by focusing on environmental factors such as new structures and reward policies. Individuals operating in such structures or under such policies will use the theory-in-use that they already hold and defensive reasoning to protect themselves. The chapter then turns to the effect that barriers, which make Traps undiscussable, have on our ability to deal with serious human problems.

This chapter presents a theory that addresses the following questions: Why do human beings produce results that are counterproductive to their own stated interests and intentions? Why do they seem unaware that they are producing the counterproductive consequences while doing so? Why if pressed to become aware do they deny their personal causal responsibility followed by denying that they are denying? Why, if pressing continues, do they claim that they are victims of the actions of others? Why do they express a sense of helplessness? Why do they express a sincere doubt that these patterns are correctable — that is, a sense of being in a Trap. The chapter shows that Traps emerge and persist when individuals use Model I theory-in-use and defensive reasoning. They cause skilled incompetence, skilled unawareness, and self-protective actions such as denial of denying, and making issues undiscussable, including the undiscussability of the undiscussable. In order to reduce Traps, we must begin by addressing Model I theories-in-use and defensive reasoning.

This chapter examines various new approaches that are supposed to solve organizational problems and bring new levels of performance. It argues that although they all have something of value to offer, they all also fall short in so far as they fail to address the existence of Traps. The crucial reality that many of these approaches overlook — no matter how innovative they seem on the surface — is that they must all be implemented by human beings, who although they often espouse Model II values and productive reasoning, usually retreat to the safety of Model I values and a defensive mind-set in action.