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Since the turn of the twenty-first century, wind power has gone from the periphery to the mainstream of energy technologies. As wind energy matures, the challenges facing the industry are changing. Cost reduction remains important, but the focus of innovation is on the offshore sector, and on the challenges posed by integrating wind into power grids at higher levels of penetration. This chapter explores the development of wind energy from both a technical and policy perspective. The chapter starts with an overview of historical deployment and future potential, and then follows with discussion of technical developments in wind energy, devoting particular attention to the issues of grid integration and offshore wind development. Subsequent sections examine the major areas of policy relevant to the wind sector and the issues associated with public acceptance.

Techno-nationalism is governments’ protectionist behaviour towards technology innovation and transfer.— Development of law and policy to secure national interest stems from belief that restricting transfer of innovation will benefit national economic growth and protect wealth and energy independency. Although not a new phenomenon, there is a global techno-nationalism revival in the energy transition context. This chapter looks at the compatibility of techno-nationalist measures with the WTO international law regime. It reviews how national legal frameworks support these policies by reference to energy transition legislation, public procurement, local content requirements, and intellectual property rights. It compares nation states’ techno-nationalism behaviour to the duties to share and transfer technology innovation in a liberalized and competitive environment. Among the applicable rules are UNFCC and WTO technology transfer requirements, including green goods provisions. Finally, the margin of appreciation for national governments and the need for legal innovation to ensure technology transfer are examined. .

This chapter analyses learning effects in the planning of large infrastructure projects in Germany. It combines insights from the analysis of a database of large-scale infrastructure projects (also known as megaprojects) across sectors over time with four in-depth case studies of offshore wind parks. Although previous studies have found that no learning takes place, this chapter finds variation in learning effects across sectors. In the buildings and transport sectors, no learning from previous project delivery experience takes place; in the construction of nuclear power plants, there is inverse learning; and in the construction and installation of offshore wind parks, there is positive learning. An in-depth analysis of the construction and installation of offshore wind parks shows that in sectors where project technology is more standardised and operated by a competitive private industry, planning inaccuracies can decrease because certain risk factors become more manageable and cost assessments more realistic over time.

According to Michael Zarin, Director of Government Relations with Vestas Wind Systems, there is nothing “alternative” about wind power anymore (Biello, 2010). After all, wind generation is the most cost-effective option for new grid-connected power in markets like Mexico, South Africa, New Zealand, China, Turkey, Canada, and the United States (Renewable Energy Policy Network [REN21], 2016). At 433 GW of cumulatively installed capacity in 2015 worldwide, more than half was added in the past 5 years (REN21, 2016). This technology may be used by individuals, communities, and utilities. It can be grid-connected or off- grid, and be used onshore or offshore. This chapter examines the influences and evolution of the Danish wind transition, highlighting how ingenuity and often less-obvious incremental advances produced a world-class industry. It reveals how citizens can be important catalysts of energy system change. The case also indicates that innovations can emerge in practices and policy, not just technology, science or industry. Denmark is a cultural and traditional technology leader for modern wind power. This country of roughly 5.6 million people and GDP of approximately $65 billion in 2016 (ppp) (Central Intelligence Agency [CIA], n.d.) is where today’s dominant, wind turbine design was established and where state-of-the art wind technology testing centers are based. It is also the site of the first, commercial-scale offshore wind farm, built in 1991. Denmark has a world-class hub for wind energy technology (Megavind, 2013; State of Green, 2015; Renewable Energy World, 2016). Top-ranked companies like Vestas, LM Wind Power, Siemens Wind Power, A2SEA, and MHI Vestas Offshore Wind are among those that base core parts of their global operations in Denmark. A close network of wind engineers and their professional affiliates drives the industry, which includes ancillary services and subcomponent supplies. Wind energy technology also represents one of Denmark’s top-ranked exports (United Nations Comtrade, n.d.). Currently, Denmark has more wind power capacity per person than does any other country in the world (REN21, 2017). This Northern European nation is on track to derive 50% of its electricity from wind power by 2020.