Henry Laycock
- Published in print:
- 2006
- Published Online:
- May 2006
- ISBN:
- 9780199281718
- eISBN:
- 9780191603594
- Item type:
- book
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/0199281718.001.0001
- Subject:
- Philosophy, Philosophy of Language
The book seeks to resolve the so-called ‘problem of mass nouns’ — a problem which cannot be resolved on the basis of a conventional system of logic. It is not, for instance, possible to explicate ...
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The book seeks to resolve the so-called ‘problem of mass nouns’ — a problem which cannot be resolved on the basis of a conventional system of logic. It is not, for instance, possible to explicate assertions of the existence of air, oil, or water through the use of quantifiers and variables which take objectual values. The difficulty is attributable to the semantically distinctive status of non-count nouns — nouns which, although not plural, are nonetheless akin to plural nouns in being semantically non-singular. Such are the semantics of a non-singular noun, that there can be no such single thing or object as the thing of which the noun is true. However, standard approaches to understanding non-singular nouns tend to be reductive, construing them as singular expressions — expressions which, in the case of non-count nouns, are true of ‘parcels’ or ‘quantities’ of stuff, and in the case of plural nouns, are true of ‘plural entities’ or ‘sets’. It is argued that both approaches are equally misguided, that there are no distinctive objects in the extensions of non-singular nouns. With plural nouns, their extensions are identical with those of the corresponding singular expressions. With non-count nouns, because they are not plural, there can be no corresponding singular expressions. In consequence, there are no objects in the extensions of non-count nouns at all. In short, there are no such things as instances of stuff: the world of space and time contains not merely large numbers of discrete concrete things or individuals of diverse kinds, but also large amounts of sheer undifferentiated concrete stuff. Metaphysically, non-singular reference in general is an arbitrary modality of reference, ungrounded in the realities to which it is non-ideally or intransparently correlated.Less
The book seeks to resolve the so-called ‘problem of mass nouns’ — a problem which cannot be resolved on the basis of a conventional system of logic. It is not, for instance, possible to explicate assertions of the existence of air, oil, or water through the use of quantifiers and variables which take objectual values. The difficulty is attributable to the semantically distinctive status of non-count nouns — nouns which, although not plural, are nonetheless akin to plural nouns in being semantically non-singular. Such are the semantics of a non-singular noun, that there can be no such single thing or object as the thing of which the noun is true. However, standard approaches to understanding non-singular nouns tend to be reductive, construing them as singular expressions — expressions which, in the case of non-count nouns, are true of ‘parcels’ or ‘quantities’ of stuff, and in the case of plural nouns, are true of ‘plural entities’ or ‘sets’. It is argued that both approaches are equally misguided, that there are no distinctive objects in the extensions of non-singular nouns. With plural nouns, their extensions are identical with those of the corresponding singular expressions. With non-count nouns, because they are not plural, there can be no corresponding singular expressions. In consequence, there are no objects in the extensions of non-count nouns at all. In short, there are no such things as instances of stuff: the world of space and time contains not merely large numbers of discrete concrete things or individuals of diverse kinds, but also large amounts of sheer undifferentiated concrete stuff. Metaphysically, non-singular reference in general is an arbitrary modality of reference, ungrounded in the realities to which it is non-ideally or intransparently correlated.
Helma Dik
- Published in print:
- 2007
- Published Online:
- September 2007
- ISBN:
- 9780199279296
- eISBN:
- 9780191706905
- Item type:
- book
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199279296.001.0001
- Subject:
- Classical Studies, Literary Studies: Classical, Early, and Medieval
This book approaches word order in Greek tragic dialogue from the perspective of language rather than metre. The tragic poets engaged in mimesis of natural dialogue; therefore the analysis of the ...
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This book approaches word order in Greek tragic dialogue from the perspective of language rather than metre. The tragic poets engaged in mimesis of natural dialogue; therefore the analysis of the linguistic characteristics of the dialogue precedes exploration of the metrical dimension, on the assumption that poets would not be overly constrained by the iambic trimeter, which, after all, was the most natural speaking verse according to Aristotle. The book analyses the word order of tragic dialogue in pragmatic terms, arguing that, in sentences, words functioning as Topic (the ‘starting point’ of an utterance) or Focus (the most salient piece of information) will come early, and that other less important words will follow. Similarly, the position of adjectives within noun phrases is analysed as a function of their relative salience rather than in terms of their semantics. This approach aims to account for word order in sentences generally, but it also allows for a new interpretation of familiar phenomena in Greek, such as ‘postponed interrogatives’. The book concludes with a commentary on the word order in four passages of Sophocles' Electra.Less
This book approaches word order in Greek tragic dialogue from the perspective of language rather than metre. The tragic poets engaged in mimesis of natural dialogue; therefore the analysis of the linguistic characteristics of the dialogue precedes exploration of the metrical dimension, on the assumption that poets would not be overly constrained by the iambic trimeter, which, after all, was the most natural speaking verse according to Aristotle. The book analyses the word order of tragic dialogue in pragmatic terms, arguing that, in sentences, words functioning as Topic (the ‘starting point’ of an utterance) or Focus (the most salient piece of information) will come early, and that other less important words will follow. Similarly, the position of adjectives within noun phrases is analysed as a function of their relative salience rather than in terms of their semantics. This approach aims to account for word order in sentences generally, but it also allows for a new interpretation of familiar phenomena in Greek, such as ‘postponed interrogatives’. The book concludes with a commentary on the word order in four passages of Sophocles' Electra.
Ronald W. Langacker
- Published in print:
- 2008
- Published Online:
- May 2008
- ISBN:
- 9780195331967
- eISBN:
- 9780199868209
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195331967.003.0010
- Subject:
- Linguistics, Syntax and Morphology
Personal pronouns and proper names are inherently grounded. The structure of other nominals tends to reflect semantic function, with the head noun as core, grounding as the outermost layer, and ...
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Personal pronouns and proper names are inherently grounded. The structure of other nominals tends to reflect semantic function, with the head noun as core, grounding as the outermost layer, and modifiers in between. Noun modification is varied both semantically and in its structural implementation. When nominal and relational expressions combine grammatically, there is often a discrepancy between the nominal expression's profile and the entity which participates most directly in the relationship—its active zone with respect to that relationship. Noun classes have varying degrees of semantic motivation. Distributional classes, defined by participation in particular patterns, may be semantically arbitrary. While gender-type classes have semantic prototypes, the class as a whole is defined by a consistent set of grammatical behaviors. In a usage based approach, such classes are characterized by families of constructional schemas. Noun classifiers likewise have prototypical values semantically extended to a range of other cases. They represent a distinct kind of nominal structure in which the classifier functions as a schematic head noun. Classifiers are related to quantifier constructions allowing the unitization of a mass. Nouns bear various kinds of grammatical markings. Most intrinsic to nouns are elements deriving them from other classes. There is no sharp distinction between such derivation and noun inflection. Markings of gender and number are intermediate. More extrinsic are markings indicating a nominal's role in higher-level grammatical constructions. These are meaningful in a symbolic account of grammar. Such an account accommodates both agreement—the multiple realization of semantic specifications—and cases where multiple specifications are realized by a single, unanalyzable form. Analyzability is a matter of degree.Less
Personal pronouns and proper names are inherently grounded. The structure of other nominals tends to reflect semantic function, with the head noun as core, grounding as the outermost layer, and modifiers in between. Noun modification is varied both semantically and in its structural implementation. When nominal and relational expressions combine grammatically, there is often a discrepancy between the nominal expression's profile and the entity which participates most directly in the relationship—its active zone with respect to that relationship. Noun classes have varying degrees of semantic motivation. Distributional classes, defined by participation in particular patterns, may be semantically arbitrary. While gender-type classes have semantic prototypes, the class as a whole is defined by a consistent set of grammatical behaviors. In a usage based approach, such classes are characterized by families of constructional schemas. Noun classifiers likewise have prototypical values semantically extended to a range of other cases. They represent a distinct kind of nominal structure in which the classifier functions as a schematic head noun. Classifiers are related to quantifier constructions allowing the unitization of a mass. Nouns bear various kinds of grammatical markings. Most intrinsic to nouns are elements deriving them from other classes. There is no sharp distinction between such derivation and noun inflection. Markings of gender and number are intermediate. More extrinsic are markings indicating a nominal's role in higher-level grammatical constructions. These are meaningful in a symbolic account of grammar. Such an account accommodates both agreement—the multiple realization of semantic specifications—and cases where multiple specifications are realized by a single, unanalyzable form. Analyzability is a matter of degree.
Ronald W. Langacker
- Published in print:
- 2008
- Published Online:
- May 2008
- ISBN:
- 9780195331967
- eISBN:
- 9780199868209
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195331967.003.0005
- Subject:
- Linguistics, Syntax and Morphology
Despite being polar opposites conceptually, the two most fundamental grammatical classes—noun and verb—show extensive parallelism. One similarity is that both divide into two major subclasses: count ...
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Despite being polar opposites conceptually, the two most fundamental grammatical classes—noun and verb—show extensive parallelism. One similarity is that both divide into two major subclasses: count vs. mass for nouns, perfective vs. imperfective for verbs. Allowing for the intrinsic conceptual difference between nouns and verbs, these oppositions are precisely the same. The essential feature of count nouns and perfective verbs is that the profiled thing or process is construed as being bounded within the immediate scope in a particular cognitive domain: the domain of instantiation, characterized as the domain where instances of a type are primarily conceived as residing and are distinguished from one another by their locations. For nouns, the domain of instantiation varies, although space is prototypical; for verbs, the relevant domain is always time. Correlated with bounding are other distinguishing properties: internal heterogeneity (for count and perfective) vs. homogeneity (for mass and imperfective); contractibility (the property of masses and imperfectives whereby any subpart of an instance is itself an instance of its type); and expansibility (whereby combining two mass or imperfective instances yields a single, larger instance). Count vs. mass and perfective vs. imperfective are not rigid lexical distinctions, but are malleable owing to alternate construals as well as systematic patterns of extension. The conceptual characterization of perfective and imperfective verbs explains their contrasting behavior with respect to the English progressive and present tense.Less
Despite being polar opposites conceptually, the two most fundamental grammatical classes—noun and verb—show extensive parallelism. One similarity is that both divide into two major subclasses: count vs. mass for nouns, perfective vs. imperfective for verbs. Allowing for the intrinsic conceptual difference between nouns and verbs, these oppositions are precisely the same. The essential feature of count nouns and perfective verbs is that the profiled thing or process is construed as being bounded within the immediate scope in a particular cognitive domain: the domain of instantiation, characterized as the domain where instances of a type are primarily conceived as residing and are distinguished from one another by their locations. For nouns, the domain of instantiation varies, although space is prototypical; for verbs, the relevant domain is always time. Correlated with bounding are other distinguishing properties: internal heterogeneity (for count and perfective) vs. homogeneity (for mass and imperfective); contractibility (the property of masses and imperfectives whereby any subpart of an instance is itself an instance of its type); and expansibility (whereby combining two mass or imperfective instances yields a single, larger instance). Count vs. mass and perfective vs. imperfective are not rigid lexical distinctions, but are malleable owing to alternate construals as well as systematic patterns of extension. The conceptual characterization of perfective and imperfective verbs explains their contrasting behavior with respect to the English progressive and present tense.
Torsten Meissner
- Published in print:
- 2006
- Published Online:
- September 2007
- ISBN:
- 9780199280087
- eISBN:
- 9780191707100
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199280087.003.0004
- Subject:
- Classical Studies, Literary Studies: Classical, Early, and Medieval
Greek possesses a very small number of non-neuter s-stem nouns. Among these words, feminine nouns are rarer than masculine ones. Yet, the type, though weak, seems to be inherited from the parent ...
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Greek possesses a very small number of non-neuter s-stem nouns. Among these words, feminine nouns are rarer than masculine ones. Yet, the type, though weak, seems to be inherited from the parent language as witnessed by a (possibly imperfect) equation. In Latin, this inflectional paradigm was reasonably successful (compare with the numerous nouns in -ōs and -or like honōs/honor ‘honour’, flōs ‘flower’), but both Greek and Sanskrit show mere relics of this group.Less
Greek possesses a very small number of non-neuter s-stem nouns. Among these words, feminine nouns are rarer than masculine ones. Yet, the type, though weak, seems to be inherited from the parent language as witnessed by a (possibly imperfect) equation. In Latin, this inflectional paradigm was reasonably successful (compare with the numerous nouns in -ōs and -or like honōs/honor ‘honour’, flōs ‘flower’), but both Greek and Sanskrit show mere relics of this group.
Ronald W. Langacker
- Published in print:
- 2008
- Published Online:
- May 2008
- ISBN:
- 9780195331967
- eISBN:
- 9780199868209
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195331967.003.0004
- Subject:
- Linguistics, Syntax and Morphology
The standard doctrine that basic grammatical classes (parts of speech) are not semantically definable rests on erroneous assumptions about the nature of linguistic meaning. With a proper view of ...
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The standard doctrine that basic grammatical classes (parts of speech) are not semantically definable rests on erroneous assumptions about the nature of linguistic meaning. With a proper view of meaning, basic categories—notably noun and verb—have plausible conceptual characterizations at both the prototype level (for typical examples) and the schema level (valid for all instances). The prototypes are based on conceptual archetypes: objects for nouns, and actions for verbs. The schemas are independent of any particular conceptual content, residing instead in basic cognitive abilities immanent in the archetypes: for nouns, grouping and reification; in the case of verbs, the ability to apprend relationships and to track their evolution through time. An expression's grammatical category specifically depends on the nature of its profile (not its overall content). Thus a noun profiles a thing (defined abstractly as any product of grouping and reification), while a verb profiles a process (a relationship tracked through time). Expressions that profile non-processual relationships include adjectives, adverbs, prepositions, infinitives, and participles. Relational expressions can be categorized in different ways, depending on factors like the number and type of focused participants, whether the profiled relation is simplex or complex, and whether it is apprehended holistically or sequentially. These characterizations prove efficacious in describing how relational expressions function as noun modifiers and in clausal organization.Less
The standard doctrine that basic grammatical classes (parts of speech) are not semantically definable rests on erroneous assumptions about the nature of linguistic meaning. With a proper view of meaning, basic categories—notably noun and verb—have plausible conceptual characterizations at both the prototype level (for typical examples) and the schema level (valid for all instances). The prototypes are based on conceptual archetypes: objects for nouns, and actions for verbs. The schemas are independent of any particular conceptual content, residing instead in basic cognitive abilities immanent in the archetypes: for nouns, grouping and reification; in the case of verbs, the ability to apprend relationships and to track their evolution through time. An expression's grammatical category specifically depends on the nature of its profile (not its overall content). Thus a noun profiles a thing (defined abstractly as any product of grouping and reification), while a verb profiles a process (a relationship tracked through time). Expressions that profile non-processual relationships include adjectives, adverbs, prepositions, infinitives, and participles. Relational expressions can be categorized in different ways, depending on factors like the number and type of focused participants, whether the profiled relation is simplex or complex, and whether it is apprehended holistically or sequentially. These characterizations prove efficacious in describing how relational expressions function as noun modifiers and in clausal organization.
John M. Anderson
- Published in print:
- 2007
- Published Online:
- September 2007
- ISBN:
- 9780199297412
- eISBN:
- 9780191711176
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199297412.003.0001
- Subject:
- Linguistics, Theoretical Linguistics
Traditionally, names and nouns are distinguished as sub-classes of noun, ‘proper’ vs. ‘common’, but names are recognized as very distinctive in their semantics, necessarily involving fixed particular ...
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Traditionally, names and nouns are distinguished as sub-classes of noun, ‘proper’ vs. ‘common’, but names are recognized as very distinctive in their semantics, necessarily involving fixed particular reference, though designation of entities is held to be in common between the sub-classes. This apparent discrepancy between semantic distinctiveness and minimal differentiation in syntax poses a challenge for notional grammar, which assumes that word-classes are notionally-based. And it has indeed been invoked in support of the assumption of the autonomy of syntax: names display a fundamental semantic distinctiveness from other words in the same word-class. However, the discrepancy, particularly as involves the assignment of names to the noun word-class, has generally been simply assumed rather than demonstrated. Examination of this situation offers a distinctive way into an exploration of the relatively neglected morphosyntax of names.Less
Traditionally, names and nouns are distinguished as sub-classes of noun, ‘proper’ vs. ‘common’, but names are recognized as very distinctive in their semantics, necessarily involving fixed particular reference, though designation of entities is held to be in common between the sub-classes. This apparent discrepancy between semantic distinctiveness and minimal differentiation in syntax poses a challenge for notional grammar, which assumes that word-classes are notionally-based. And it has indeed been invoked in support of the assumption of the autonomy of syntax: names display a fundamental semantic distinctiveness from other words in the same word-class. However, the discrepancy, particularly as involves the assignment of names to the noun word-class, has generally been simply assumed rather than demonstrated. Examination of this situation offers a distinctive way into an exploration of the relatively neglected morphosyntax of names.
David Langslow
- Published in print:
- 2009
- Published Online:
- September 2009
- ISBN:
- 9780198153023
- eISBN:
- 9780191715211
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780198153023.003.0049
- Subject:
- Classical Studies, Prose and Writers: Classical, Early, and Medieval
In Lecture 49, the chapter begins the discussion of the cases by drawing attention to indeclinable nouns and defective nouns (nouns lacking one or more case-forms), and by considering the relation ...
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In Lecture 49, the chapter begins the discussion of the cases by drawing attention to indeclinable nouns and defective nouns (nouns lacking one or more case-forms), and by considering the relation between case-forms and adverbs. The chapter proceeds (Lecture 50) to the question of the number of cases to be found in Indo-European and non-Indo-European languages, and to the diachronic phenomenon of syncretism (reduction over time in the number of cases) and reasons for it. Postponed to a later lecture (one never published) is the treatment of the use of the individual cases,with the exception of the vocative, which, together with the use of nominative for vocative, and some remarks on the use of the vocative particles Gk □ and Lat. ο, is the subject of the last lecture of the first series (Lecture 51).Less
In Lecture 49, the chapter begins the discussion of the cases by drawing attention to indeclinable nouns and defective nouns (nouns lacking one or more case-forms), and by considering the relation between case-forms and adverbs. The chapter proceeds (Lecture 50) to the question of the number of cases to be found in Indo-European and non-Indo-European languages, and to the diachronic phenomenon of syncretism (reduction over time in the number of cases) and reasons for it. Postponed to a later lecture (one never published) is the treatment of the use of the individual cases,with the exception of the vocative, which, together with the use of nominative for vocative, and some remarks on the use of the vocative particles Gk □ and Lat. ο, is the subject of the last lecture of the first series (Lecture 51).
David Langslow
- Published in print:
- 2009
- Published Online:
- September 2009
- ISBN:
- 9780198153023
- eISBN:
- 9780191715211
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780198153023.003.0050
- Subject:
- Classical Studies, Prose and Writers: Classical, Early, and Medieval
In Lecture 49, the chapter begins the discussion of the cases by drawing attention to indeclinable nouns and defective nouns (nouns lacking one or more case-forms),and by considering the relation ...
More
In Lecture 49, the chapter begins the discussion of the cases by drawing attention to indeclinable nouns and defective nouns (nouns lacking one or more case-forms),and by considering the relation between case-forms and adverbs. The chapter proceeds (Lecture 50) to the question of the number of cases to be found in Indo-European and non-Indo-European languages, and to the diachronic phenomenon of syncretism (reduction over time in the number of cases) and reasons for it. Postponed to a later lecture (one never published) is the treatment of the use of the individual cases, with the exception of the vocative, which, together with the use of nominative for vocative, and some remarks on the use of the vocative particles Gk □ and Lat. ο, is the subject of the last lecture of the first series (Lecture 51).Less
In Lecture 49, the chapter begins the discussion of the cases by drawing attention to indeclinable nouns and defective nouns (nouns lacking one or more case-forms),and by considering the relation between case-forms and adverbs. The chapter proceeds (Lecture 50) to the question of the number of cases to be found in Indo-European and non-Indo-European languages, and to the diachronic phenomenon of syncretism (reduction over time in the number of cases) and reasons for it. Postponed to a later lecture (one never published) is the treatment of the use of the individual cases, with the exception of the vocative, which, together with the use of nominative for vocative, and some remarks on the use of the vocative particles Gk □ and Lat. ο, is the subject of the last lecture of the first series (Lecture 51).
David Langslow
- Published in print:
- 2009
- Published Online:
- September 2009
- ISBN:
- 9780198153023
- eISBN:
- 9780191715211
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780198153023.003.0051
- Subject:
- Classical Studies, Prose and Writers: Classical, Early, and Medieval
In Lecture 49, the chapter begins the discussion of the cases by drawing attention to indeclinable nouns and defective nouns (nouns lacking one or more case-forms), and by considering the relation ...
More
In Lecture 49, the chapter begins the discussion of the cases by drawing attention to indeclinable nouns and defective nouns (nouns lacking one or more case-forms), and by considering the relation between case-forms and adverbs. The chapter proceeds (Lecture 50) to the question of the number of cases to be found in Indo-European and non-Indo-European languages,and to the diachronic phenomenon of syncretism (reduction over time in the number of cases) and reasons for it. Postponed to a later lecture (one never published) is the treatment of the use of the individual cases, with the exception of the vocative, which, together with the use of nominative for vocative, and some remarks on the use of the vocative particles Gk □ and Lat. ο, is the subject of the last lecture of the first series (Lecture 51).Less
In Lecture 49, the chapter begins the discussion of the cases by drawing attention to indeclinable nouns and defective nouns (nouns lacking one or more case-forms), and by considering the relation between case-forms and adverbs. The chapter proceeds (Lecture 50) to the question of the number of cases to be found in Indo-European and non-Indo-European languages,and to the diachronic phenomenon of syncretism (reduction over time in the number of cases) and reasons for it. Postponed to a later lecture (one never published) is the treatment of the use of the individual cases, with the exception of the vocative, which, together with the use of nominative for vocative, and some remarks on the use of the vocative particles Gk □ and Lat. ο, is the subject of the last lecture of the first series (Lecture 51).
Anthony Corbeill
- Published in print:
- 2015
- Published Online:
- October 2017
- ISBN:
- 9780691163222
- eISBN:
- 9781400852468
- Item type:
- book
- Publisher:
- Princeton University Press
- DOI:
- 10.23943/princeton/9780691163222.001.0001
- Subject:
- History, Ancient History / Archaeology
From the moment a child in ancient Rome began to speak Latin, the surrounding world became populated with objects possessing grammatical gender—masculine eyes (oculi), feminine trees (arbores), ...
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From the moment a child in ancient Rome began to speak Latin, the surrounding world became populated with objects possessing grammatical gender—masculine eyes (oculi), feminine trees (arbores), neuter bodies (corpora). This book surveys the many ways in which grammatical gender enabled Latin speakers to organize aspects of their society into sexual categories, and how this identification of grammatical gender with biological sex affected Roman perceptions of Latin poetry, divine power, and human hermaphrodites. Beginning with the ancient grammarians, the book examines how these scholars used the gender of nouns to identify the sex of the object being signified, regardless of whether that object was animate or inanimate. This informed the Roman poets who, for a time, changed at whim the grammatical gender for words as seemingly lifeless as “dust” (pulvis) or “tree bark” (cortex). The book then applies the idea of fluid grammatical gender to the basic tenets of Roman religion and state politics. It looks at how the ancients tended to construct Rome's earliest divinities as related male and female pairs, a tendency that waned in later periods. An analogous change characterized the dual-sexed hermaphrodite, whose sacred and political significance declined as the republican government became an autocracy. The book shows that the fluid boundaries of sex and gender became increasingly fixed into opposing and exclusive categories.Less
From the moment a child in ancient Rome began to speak Latin, the surrounding world became populated with objects possessing grammatical gender—masculine eyes (oculi), feminine trees (arbores), neuter bodies (corpora). This book surveys the many ways in which grammatical gender enabled Latin speakers to organize aspects of their society into sexual categories, and how this identification of grammatical gender with biological sex affected Roman perceptions of Latin poetry, divine power, and human hermaphrodites. Beginning with the ancient grammarians, the book examines how these scholars used the gender of nouns to identify the sex of the object being signified, regardless of whether that object was animate or inanimate. This informed the Roman poets who, for a time, changed at whim the grammatical gender for words as seemingly lifeless as “dust” (pulvis) or “tree bark” (cortex). The book then applies the idea of fluid grammatical gender to the basic tenets of Roman religion and state politics. It looks at how the ancients tended to construct Rome's earliest divinities as related male and female pairs, a tendency that waned in later periods. An analogous change characterized the dual-sexed hermaphrodite, whose sacred and political significance declined as the republican government became an autocracy. The book shows that the fluid boundaries of sex and gender became increasingly fixed into opposing and exclusive categories.
Andra Kalnača and Ilze Lokmane
- Published in print:
- 2010
- Published Online:
- January 2012
- ISBN:
- 9780197264607
- eISBN:
- 9780191734366
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- British Academy
- DOI:
- 10.5871/bacad/9780197264607.003.0004
- Subject:
- Linguistics, Syntax and Morphology
This chapter discusses the defective paradigms of the reflexive nouns and participles in the Latvian language. In Latvian, the reflexiveness of the nouns and the verbs functions as a complex ...
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This chapter discusses the defective paradigms of the reflexive nouns and participles in the Latvian language. In Latvian, the reflexiveness of the nouns and the verbs functions as a complex derivational and inflectional system. In this language, the reflexive verbs, participles, and nouns are formed through the fusion of verbal or noun forms with enclitic accusative form of the reflexive pronoun. Reflexive verbs have full person, tense and mood paradigms whilst reflexive nouns and participles have defective paradigms in Latvian. Although the rationale behind defectiveness of the paradigms of the reflexive nouns and participles are difficult to pinpoint, there are several types of compensation for the defectiveness in the Modern Latvian. These include the use of non-standard forms, the use of corresponding non-reflexive participle and noun forms, and the use of other forms of paradigms in lieu of the missing ones. These alternative paradigms depend however on the syntactic function of the word-form. Some topics discussed herein include: derivation and semantics of reflexive nouns; paradigmatic system of reflexive nouns and participles; and functioning of the paradigms of reflexive nouns and participles.Less
This chapter discusses the defective paradigms of the reflexive nouns and participles in the Latvian language. In Latvian, the reflexiveness of the nouns and the verbs functions as a complex derivational and inflectional system. In this language, the reflexive verbs, participles, and nouns are formed through the fusion of verbal or noun forms with enclitic accusative form of the reflexive pronoun. Reflexive verbs have full person, tense and mood paradigms whilst reflexive nouns and participles have defective paradigms in Latvian. Although the rationale behind defectiveness of the paradigms of the reflexive nouns and participles are difficult to pinpoint, there are several types of compensation for the defectiveness in the Modern Latvian. These include the use of non-standard forms, the use of corresponding non-reflexive participle and noun forms, and the use of other forms of paradigms in lieu of the missing ones. These alternative paradigms depend however on the syntactic function of the word-form. Some topics discussed herein include: derivation and semantics of reflexive nouns; paradigmatic system of reflexive nouns and participles; and functioning of the paradigms of reflexive nouns and participles.
Ricardo Bermúdez-otero
- Published in print:
- 2007
- Published Online:
- January 2012
- ISBN:
- 9780197264102
- eISBN:
- 9780191734380
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- British Academy
- DOI:
- 10.5871/bacad/9780197264102.003.0010
- Subject:
- Linguistics, Syntax and Morphology
This chapter discusses Spanish pseudoplurals. It begins by presenting evidence for distinguishing between pseudoplural nouns and non-pseudoplural nouns with athematic stems in /s/. Some ...
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This chapter discusses Spanish pseudoplurals. It begins by presenting evidence for distinguishing between pseudoplural nouns and non-pseudoplural nouns with athematic stems in /s/. Some misconceptions about athematic stems in /s/ are clarified in the next section. The chapter then charts the acquisition path that shows Spanish learners the contrast between pseudoplural nouns and non-deponent nouns with athematic stems in /s/. The last section of the chapter is devoted to a survey of the general implications of the findings.Less
This chapter discusses Spanish pseudoplurals. It begins by presenting evidence for distinguishing between pseudoplural nouns and non-pseudoplural nouns with athematic stems in /s/. Some misconceptions about athematic stems in /s/ are clarified in the next section. The chapter then charts the acquisition path that shows Spanish learners the contrast between pseudoplural nouns and non-deponent nouns with athematic stems in /s/. The last section of the chapter is devoted to a survey of the general implications of the findings.
Andrea Krott
- Published in print:
- 2009
- Published Online:
- September 2009
- ISBN:
- 9780199547548
- eISBN:
- 9780191720628
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199547548.003.0006
- Subject:
- Linguistics, Psycholinguistics / Neurolinguistics / Cognitive Linguistics, Computational Linguistics
This chapter summarizes research on the production, interpretation, and acquisition of noun-noun compounds. Analogical generalizations can systematically govern a whole category of words across ...
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This chapter summarizes research on the production, interpretation, and acquisition of noun-noun compounds. Analogical generalizations can systematically govern a whole category of words across different languages and language families. The same kinds of analogical generalizations are in evidence in different domains of languages processing, from language acquisition, to visual word processing.Less
This chapter summarizes research on the production, interpretation, and acquisition of noun-noun compounds. Analogical generalizations can systematically govern a whole category of words across different languages and language families. The same kinds of analogical generalizations are in evidence in different domains of languages processing, from language acquisition, to visual word processing.
Claude Hagège
- Published in print:
- 2010
- Published Online:
- May 2010
- ISBN:
- 9780199575008
- eISBN:
- 9780191722578
- Item type:
- book
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199575008.001.0001
- Subject:
- Linguistics, Syntax and Morphology
This pioneering study is based on an analysis of over 200 languages, including African, Amerindian, Australian, Austronesian, Indo-European and Eurasian (Altaic, Caucasian, Chukotko-Kamchatkan, ...
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This pioneering study is based on an analysis of over 200 languages, including African, Amerindian, Australian, Austronesian, Indo-European and Eurasian (Altaic, Caucasian, Chukotko-Kamchatkan, Dravidian, Uralic), Papuan, and Sino-Tibetan. Adpositions are an almost universal part of speech. English has prepositions; some languages, such as Japanese, have postpositions; others have both; and yet others, kinds that are not quite either. As grammatical tools they mark the relationship between two parts of a sentence: characteristically one element governs a noun or noun-like word or phrase while the other functions as a predicate. From the syntactic point of view, the complement of an adposition depends on a head: in this last sentence, for example, a head is the complement of on while on a head depends on depends, and on is the marker of this dependency. Adpositions lie at the core of the grammar of most languages, their usefulness making them recurrent in everyday speech and writing. The author examines their morphological features, syntactic functions, and semantic and cognitive properties. He does so for the subsets both of adpositions that express the relations of agent, patient, and beneficiary, and of those which mark space, time, accompaniment, or instrument. Adpositions often govern case and are sometimes gradually grammaticalized into case. The author considers the whole set of function markers, including case, which appear as adpositions and, in doing so, throws light on processes of morphological and syntactic change in different languages and language families.Less
This pioneering study is based on an analysis of over 200 languages, including African, Amerindian, Australian, Austronesian, Indo-European and Eurasian (Altaic, Caucasian, Chukotko-Kamchatkan, Dravidian, Uralic), Papuan, and Sino-Tibetan. Adpositions are an almost universal part of speech. English has prepositions; some languages, such as Japanese, have postpositions; others have both; and yet others, kinds that are not quite either. As grammatical tools they mark the relationship between two parts of a sentence: characteristically one element governs a noun or noun-like word or phrase while the other functions as a predicate. From the syntactic point of view, the complement of an adposition depends on a head: in this last sentence, for example, a head is the complement of on while on a head depends on depends, and on is the marker of this dependency. Adpositions lie at the core of the grammar of most languages, their usefulness making them recurrent in everyday speech and writing. The author examines their morphological features, syntactic functions, and semantic and cognitive properties. He does so for the subsets both of adpositions that express the relations of agent, patient, and beneficiary, and of those which mark space, time, accompaniment, or instrument. Adpositions often govern case and are sometimes gradually grammaticalized into case. The author considers the whole set of function markers, including case, which appear as adpositions and, in doing so, throws light on processes of morphological and syntactic change in different languages and language families.
Claude Hagège
- Published in print:
- 2010
- Published Online:
- May 2010
- ISBN:
- 9780199575008
- eISBN:
- 9780191722578
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199575008.003.0003
- Subject:
- Linguistics, Syntax and Morphology
Now that a comprehensive characterization of adpositions (Adps) has been given in Chapter 2, this chapter studies them from the morphological point of view, showing the diversity they exhibit in this ...
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Now that a comprehensive characterization of adpositions (Adps) has been given in Chapter 2, this chapter studies them from the morphological point of view, showing the diversity they exhibit in this respect. This will be done in four steps. Section 3.1 first examines the distribution of Adps in the languages of the world, as viewed by various authors. Section 3.2 studies the word-order characteristics of Adps, and the Adp types these word-orders produce. Section 3.3 examines some special morphological characteristics of Adps and Adp-phrases. Section 3.4 examines the relationships between Adps and the main lexical units, verbs and nouns.Less
Now that a comprehensive characterization of adpositions (Adps) has been given in Chapter 2, this chapter studies them from the morphological point of view, showing the diversity they exhibit in this respect. This will be done in four steps. Section 3.1 first examines the distribution of Adps in the languages of the world, as viewed by various authors. Section 3.2 studies the word-order characteristics of Adps, and the Adp types these word-orders produce. Section 3.3 examines some special morphological characteristics of Adps and Adp-phrases. Section 3.4 examines the relationships between Adps and the main lexical units, verbs and nouns.
Hagit Borer
- Published in print:
- 2010
- Published Online:
- May 2010
- ISBN:
- 9780199544325
- eISBN:
- 9780191720536
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199544325.003.0015
- Subject:
- Linguistics, Historical Linguistics
This chapter relates two questions concerning bare noun arguments: (i) the contrast between the acceptability in Hebrew of sentence initial V‐S with bare noun subjects where V is unaccusative, and ...
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This chapter relates two questions concerning bare noun arguments: (i) the contrast between the acceptability in Hebrew of sentence initial V‐S with bare noun subjects where V is unaccusative, and its unacceptability where V is unergative; (ii) the telicity in Hebrew and English of achievements with bare noun arguments, in contrast to the atelicity of accomplishments with bare noun arguments. The argument that the two contrasts are related relies on the observation that both disappear under the presence of a locale (an indexical adverb of the sort found as subject of existential constructions). The major claim made in the chapter is thus about the central role locatives play both in forcing existential interpretations and in allowing telic readings with non‐quantity arguments.Less
This chapter relates two questions concerning bare noun arguments: (i) the contrast between the acceptability in Hebrew of sentence initial V‐S with bare noun subjects where V is unaccusative, and its unacceptability where V is unergative; (ii) the telicity in Hebrew and English of achievements with bare noun arguments, in contrast to the atelicity of accomplishments with bare noun arguments. The argument that the two contrasts are related relies on the observation that both disappear under the presence of a locale (an indexical adverb of the sort found as subject of existential constructions). The major claim made in the chapter is thus about the central role locatives play both in forcing existential interpretations and in allowing telic readings with non‐quantity arguments.
Stephen Anderson
- Published in print:
- 2005
- Published Online:
- September 2007
- ISBN:
- 9780199279906
- eISBN:
- 9780191707131
- Item type:
- book
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199279906.001.0001
- Subject:
- Linguistics, Syntax and Morphology
This book is about the grammar of clitics. It considers all points of view, including their phonology and syntax and relation to morphology. In the process, it deals with the relation of second ...
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This book is about the grammar of clitics. It considers all points of view, including their phonology and syntax and relation to morphology. In the process, it deals with the relation of second position clitics to verb-second phenomena in Germanic and other languages, the grammar of contracted auxiliary verbs in English, noun incorporation constructions, and several other much discussed topics in grammar. The book includes analyses of a number of particular languages, and some of these — such as Kwakw'ala (nullKwakiutlnull) and Surmiran Rumantsch — are based on the author's own field research. The study of clitics has broad implications for a general understanding of sentence structure in natural language.Less
This book is about the grammar of clitics. It considers all points of view, including their phonology and syntax and relation to morphology. In the process, it deals with the relation of second position clitics to verb-second phenomena in Germanic and other languages, the grammar of contracted auxiliary verbs in English, noun incorporation constructions, and several other much discussed topics in grammar. The book includes analyses of a number of particular languages, and some of these — such as Kwakw'ala (nullKwakiutlnull) and Surmiran Rumantsch — are based on the author's own field research. The study of clitics has broad implications for a general understanding of sentence structure in natural language.
Alan Garnham and H. Wind Cowles
- Published in print:
- 2008
- Published Online:
- May 2008
- ISBN:
- 9780195331639
- eISBN:
- 9780199867981
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195331639.003.0010
- Subject:
- Linguistics, Semantics and Pragmatics
This chapter presents a new model of coreferential noun phrase anaphora processing, JANUS, within the mental models framework. It summarizes previous research on NP anaphora that is most pertinent to ...
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This chapter presents a new model of coreferential noun phrase anaphora processing, JANUS, within the mental models framework. It summarizes previous research on NP anaphora that is most pertinent to JANUS, and outlines two previous attempts to provide an integrated theory of NP anaphora: Centering Theory and Almor's Informational Load Hypothesis. Each has it problems, but the Informational Load Hypothesis is more firmly rooted in psychology, and closer to the JANUS approach. JANUS incorporates many ideas from the Informational Load Hypothesis, but attempts to address its problems. JANUS assumes that the semantic content of an anaphor should be justified by two types of role that the anaphoric expression plays. Backward-looking roles are primarily concerned with identifying the antecedent (and referent) of the anaphor. Forward-looking roles relate to what is to be said about the referent in upcoming discourse. These two types of roles give JANUS its name.Less
This chapter presents a new model of coreferential noun phrase anaphora processing, JANUS, within the mental models framework. It summarizes previous research on NP anaphora that is most pertinent to JANUS, and outlines two previous attempts to provide an integrated theory of NP anaphora: Centering Theory and Almor's Informational Load Hypothesis. Each has it problems, but the Informational Load Hypothesis is more firmly rooted in psychology, and closer to the JANUS approach. JANUS incorporates many ideas from the Informational Load Hypothesis, but attempts to address its problems. JANUS assumes that the semantic content of an anaphor should be justified by two types of role that the anaphoric expression plays. Backward-looking roles are primarily concerned with identifying the antecedent (and referent) of the anaphor. Forward-looking roles relate to what is to be said about the referent in upcoming discourse. These two types of roles give JANUS its name.
J. Rijkhoff
- Published in print:
- 2002
- Published Online:
- January 2010
- ISBN:
- 9780198237822
- eISBN:
- 9780191706776
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780198237822.003.0002
- Subject:
- Linguistics, Semantics and Pragmatics
This chapter investigates certain morpho-syntactic and semantic properties of both flexible and distinct nouns that are employed in languages across the world to refer to a singular discrete spatial ...
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This chapter investigates certain morpho-syntactic and semantic properties of both flexible and distinct nouns that are employed in languages across the world to refer to a singular discrete spatial entity (or individual) such as ‘dog’ or ‘knife’ (or, rather, to refer to an entity whose ontological counterpart or Sein-correlate is a singular discrete spatial object). Based on morpho-syntactic evidence, this chapter argues that four noun types (or nominal subcategories) are normally used for this purpose: singular object nouns, set nouns, sort nouns, and general nouns. Ultimately this leads to a more comprehensive and semantically orientated classification of six major nominal subcategories which are defined in terms of two features: shape and homogeneity. The semantics of incorporated and predicate nouns is also discussed. The chapter contends that each nominal subcategory essentially defines a different Seinsart of a spatial property, that is, an alternative way in which a nominal property is specified for the features shape and homogeneity.Less
This chapter investigates certain morpho-syntactic and semantic properties of both flexible and distinct nouns that are employed in languages across the world to refer to a singular discrete spatial entity (or individual) such as ‘dog’ or ‘knife’ (or, rather, to refer to an entity whose ontological counterpart or Sein-correlate is a singular discrete spatial object). Based on morpho-syntactic evidence, this chapter argues that four noun types (or nominal subcategories) are normally used for this purpose: singular object nouns, set nouns, sort nouns, and general nouns. Ultimately this leads to a more comprehensive and semantically orientated classification of six major nominal subcategories which are defined in terms of two features: shape and homogeneity. The semantics of incorporated and predicate nouns is also discussed. The chapter contends that each nominal subcategory essentially defines a different Seinsart of a spatial property, that is, an alternative way in which a nominal property is specified for the features shape and homogeneity.
