Vaclav Smil
- Published in print:
- 2006
- Published Online:
- September 2006
- ISBN:
- 9780195168754
- eISBN:
- 9780199783601
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/0195168755.003.0003
- Subject:
- Economics and Finance, Economic History
Steel — made from iron in basic oxygen furnaces and electric arc furnaces, and turned into semifinished products by continuous casting — remained the dominant material of the 20th century. Completely ...
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Steel — made from iron in basic oxygen furnaces and electric arc furnaces, and turned into semifinished products by continuous casting — remained the dominant material of the 20th century. Completely new large-scale industries were developed to supply industrial gases (oxygen, nitrogen, hydrogen) and to synthesize a multitude of plastics. The most far reaching technical advances of the century’s second half were based on silicon, the key building block of solid state electronics.Less
Steel — made from iron in basic oxygen furnaces and electric arc furnaces, and turned into semifinished products by continuous casting — remained the dominant material of the 20th century. Completely new large-scale industries were developed to supply industrial gases (oxygen, nitrogen, hydrogen) and to synthesize a multitude of plastics. The most far reaching technical advances of the century’s second half were based on silicon, the key building block of solid state electronics.
Wai-Kee Li, Gong-Du Zhou, and Thomas Chung Wai Mak
- Published in print:
- 2008
- Published Online:
- May 2008
- ISBN:
- 9780199216949
- eISBN:
- 9780191711992
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199216949.003.0015
- Subject:
- Physics, Crystallography: Physics
This chapter focuses on nitrogen, including the N2 molecule, all-nitrogen ions, dinitrogen complexes, nitrogen oxides and hydrides, etc. A significant portion of the chapter is devoted to the ...
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This chapter focuses on nitrogen, including the N2 molecule, all-nitrogen ions, dinitrogen complexes, nitrogen oxides and hydrides, etc. A significant portion of the chapter is devoted to the structural chemistry of phosphorus, consisting of sections on elemental phosphorus and P n groups, the bonding types and coordination geometry of phosphorus, phosphorus-nitrogen and phosphorus-carbon compounds, etc. The chapter concludes with a section on the structural chemistry of arsenic, antimony, and bismuth, discussing their stereochemistry, clusters, and the intermolecular interactions in organoantimony and organobismuth compounds.Less
This chapter focuses on nitrogen, including the N2 molecule, all-nitrogen ions, dinitrogen complexes, nitrogen oxides and hydrides, etc. A significant portion of the chapter is devoted to the structural chemistry of phosphorus, consisting of sections on elemental phosphorus and P n groups, the bonding types and coordination geometry of phosphorus, phosphorus-nitrogen and phosphorus-carbon compounds, etc. The chapter concludes with a section on the structural chemistry of arsenic, antimony, and bismuth, discussing their stereochemistry, clusters, and the intermolecular interactions in organoantimony and organobismuth compounds.
R. Ford Denison
- Published in print:
- 2012
- Published Online:
- October 2017
- ISBN:
- 9780691139500
- eISBN:
- 9781400842810
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Princeton University Press
- DOI:
- 10.23943/princeton/9780691139500.003.0009
- Subject:
- Biology, Evolutionary Biology / Genetics
This chapter examines cooperation between two species and how cooperation among related individuals of one species can also help maintain cooperation between species. It presents some examples of ...
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This chapter examines cooperation between two species and how cooperation among related individuals of one species can also help maintain cooperation between species. It presents some examples of between-species cooperation, the evolutionary tradeoffs that can undermine such cooperation, and opportunities for improvement. The chapter begins by showing that cooperation and so-called cheating commonly occur between two species. It then considers how conflict evolves and how two-species partnerships may be improved such that they will be useful in agriculture. It also explores symbiotic nitrogen fixation and the dilemma termed “tragedy of the commons,” the link between kin selection and within-species cooperation, and microbial analogs of kin selection and rhizobial mutualism. Finally, the chapter discusses the sanctions hypothesis that explains the nature of microbial cooperation with plants, along with other opportunities for improved two-species cooperation.Less
This chapter examines cooperation between two species and how cooperation among related individuals of one species can also help maintain cooperation between species. It presents some examples of between-species cooperation, the evolutionary tradeoffs that can undermine such cooperation, and opportunities for improvement. The chapter begins by showing that cooperation and so-called cheating commonly occur between two species. It then considers how conflict evolves and how two-species partnerships may be improved such that they will be useful in agriculture. It also explores symbiotic nitrogen fixation and the dilemma termed “tragedy of the commons,” the link between kin selection and within-species cooperation, and microbial analogs of kin selection and rhizobial mutualism. Finally, the chapter discusses the sanctions hypothesis that explains the nature of microbial cooperation with plants, along with other opportunities for improved two-species cooperation.
Frederic H. Wagner
- Published in print:
- 2006
- Published Online:
- September 2007
- ISBN:
- 9780195148213
- eISBN:
- 9780199790449
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195148213.003.0014
- Subject:
- Biology, Ecology
Ungulate grazing, primarily by elk and bison, accelerates nitrogen cycling within the northern-range system by consumption, digestion, excretion, and subsequent mineralization. Ungulate use does not ...
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Ungulate grazing, primarily by elk and bison, accelerates nitrogen cycling within the northern-range system by consumption, digestion, excretion, and subsequent mineralization. Ungulate use does not in and of itself increase or decrease the total nitrogen content of the system. The content is determined by input-output processes that include fixation, denitrification, volatilization, soil erosion, aerosol transport, and seasonal elk movements. Without measurements of the input-output processes, no nitrogen budget for the system can be formulated.Less
Ungulate grazing, primarily by elk and bison, accelerates nitrogen cycling within the northern-range system by consumption, digestion, excretion, and subsequent mineralization. Ungulate use does not in and of itself increase or decrease the total nitrogen content of the system. The content is determined by input-output processes that include fixation, denitrification, volatilization, soil erosion, aerosol transport, and seasonal elk movements. Without measurements of the input-output processes, no nitrogen budget for the system can be formulated.
Thomas S. Bianchi and Elizabeth A. Canuel
- Published in print:
- 2011
- Published Online:
- October 2017
- ISBN:
- 9780691134147
- eISBN:
- 9781400839100
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Princeton University Press
- DOI:
- 10.23943/princeton/9780691134147.003.0006
- Subject:
- Biology, Ecology
This chapter discusses proteins, which make up approximately 50% of organic matter and contain about 85% of the organic nitrogen in marine organisms. Peptides and proteins comprise an important ...
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This chapter discusses proteins, which make up approximately 50% of organic matter and contain about 85% of the organic nitrogen in marine organisms. Peptides and proteins comprise an important fraction of the particulate organic carbon (13–37%) and particulate organic nitrogen (30–81%), as well as dissolved organic nitrogen (5–20%) and dissolved organic carbon (3–4%) in oceanic and coastal waters. In sediments, proteins account for approximately 7 to 25% of organic carbon and an estimated 30 to 90% of total nitrogen. Amino acids are the basic building blocks of proteins. This class of compounds is essential to all organisms and represents one of the most important components in the organic nitrogen cycle. Amino acids represent one of the most labile pools of organic carbon and nitrogen.Less
This chapter discusses proteins, which make up approximately 50% of organic matter and contain about 85% of the organic nitrogen in marine organisms. Peptides and proteins comprise an important fraction of the particulate organic carbon (13–37%) and particulate organic nitrogen (30–81%), as well as dissolved organic nitrogen (5–20%) and dissolved organic carbon (3–4%) in oceanic and coastal waters. In sediments, proteins account for approximately 7 to 25% of organic carbon and an estimated 30 to 90% of total nitrogen. Amino acids are the basic building blocks of proteins. This class of compounds is essential to all organisms and represents one of the most important components in the organic nitrogen cycle. Amino acids represent one of the most labile pools of organic carbon and nitrogen.
Nico Blüthgen and Heike Feldhaar
- Published in print:
- 2009
- Published Online:
- February 2010
- ISBN:
- 9780199544639
- eISBN:
- 9780191720192
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199544639.003.0007
- Subject:
- Biology, Ecology, Animal Biology
Food and nesting space are the most important resources for ants and contribute strongly to the structure of ant communities. Most ants can be considered omnivores; however, differences in morphology ...
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Food and nesting space are the most important resources for ants and contribute strongly to the structure of ant communities. Most ants can be considered omnivores; however, differences in morphology and digestive capabilities constrain the availability of food sources and contribute to fundamental niche differentiation. Endosymbionts may play a crucial role in facilitating nitrogen uptake, nutrient balance, or food detoxification. The location and distribution of nest sites, and whether nests are static or dynamic, affect the diets that are available to ants, given their limited foraging range. Macronutrients in ant diets have been demonstrated to affect competition and territorial behaviour. When food is available continuously, territoriality and permanent nests may be favoured, while short‐lived food sources require more frequent nest relocation. Consequently, nest types are highly variable, ranging from relatively persistent nests in the ground or wood cavities to dynamic, flexible bivouacs formed only by the worker's bodies.Less
Food and nesting space are the most important resources for ants and contribute strongly to the structure of ant communities. Most ants can be considered omnivores; however, differences in morphology and digestive capabilities constrain the availability of food sources and contribute to fundamental niche differentiation. Endosymbionts may play a crucial role in facilitating nitrogen uptake, nutrient balance, or food detoxification. The location and distribution of nest sites, and whether nests are static or dynamic, affect the diets that are available to ants, given their limited foraging range. Macronutrients in ant diets have been demonstrated to affect competition and territorial behaviour. When food is available continuously, territoriality and permanent nests may be favoured, while short‐lived food sources require more frequent nest relocation. Consequently, nest types are highly variable, ranging from relatively persistent nests in the ground or wood cavities to dynamic, flexible bivouacs formed only by the worker's bodies.
Edward Dallam Melillo
- Published in print:
- 2015
- Published Online:
- May 2016
- ISBN:
- 9780300206623
- eISBN:
- 9780300216486
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Yale University Press
- DOI:
- 10.12987/yale/9780300206623.003.0005
- Subject:
- Economics and Finance, Economic History
This chapter describes efforts to improve the fertility of California's soils. During the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, nitrogen depletion in California's soils was a major concern. ...
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This chapter describes efforts to improve the fertility of California's soils. During the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, nitrogen depletion in California's soils was a major concern. Farmers relied on two imports from Chile—nitrogen-rich Chilean alfalfa (Medicago sativa) and Chilean sodium nitrate (NaNO3)—to meet the nutrient demands of a continuously expanding agricultural system. Chilean alfalfa was indispensable to the emergence of Northern California's profitable dairy businesses, which made California into the nation's top milk butter, ice cream, and yogurt-producing state by the end of the twentieth century. Chilean sodium nitrate was essential to Southern California's prosperous citrus-fruit industry, which served as that region's primary engine of economic growth from the 1880s through World War II.Less
This chapter describes efforts to improve the fertility of California's soils. During the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, nitrogen depletion in California's soils was a major concern. Farmers relied on two imports from Chile—nitrogen-rich Chilean alfalfa (Medicago sativa) and Chilean sodium nitrate (NaNO3)—to meet the nutrient demands of a continuously expanding agricultural system. Chilean alfalfa was indispensable to the emergence of Northern California's profitable dairy businesses, which made California into the nation's top milk butter, ice cream, and yogurt-producing state by the end of the twentieth century. Chilean sodium nitrate was essential to Southern California's prosperous citrus-fruit industry, which served as that region's primary engine of economic growth from the 1880s through World War II.
Arne Haaland
- Published in print:
- 2008
- Published Online:
- May 2008
- ISBN:
- 9780199235353
- eISBN:
- 9780191715594
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199235353.003.0020
- Subject:
- Physics, Condensed Matter Physics / Materials
This chapter describes the molecular structures of the three known carbon oxides, the three known sulfur oxides, eight nitrogen oxides, two phosphorus oxides, and three chlorine oxides. Bond energies ...
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This chapter describes the molecular structures of the three known carbon oxides, the three known sulfur oxides, eight nitrogen oxides, two phosphorus oxides, and three chlorine oxides. Bond energies are presented whenever available. The discussion also includes three sulfur oxofluorides, sulfuric acid, nitric acid, two phosphoryl halides (OPX3), orthophosphoric acid, and perchlorid acid. Both the bond distances and the bond energies indicate that the terminal oxygen atoms in all the molecules under consideration should be described as doubly bonded (oxo) atoms, the only exception being CO which is best described as triply bonded. The structures are discussed in terms of simple Lewis structures, the VSEPR model, and delocalized π molecular orbitals.Less
This chapter describes the molecular structures of the three known carbon oxides, the three known sulfur oxides, eight nitrogen oxides, two phosphorus oxides, and three chlorine oxides. Bond energies are presented whenever available. The discussion also includes three sulfur oxofluorides, sulfuric acid, nitric acid, two phosphoryl halides (OPX3), orthophosphoric acid, and perchlorid acid. Both the bond distances and the bond energies indicate that the terminal oxygen atoms in all the molecules under consideration should be described as doubly bonded (oxo) atoms, the only exception being CO which is best described as triply bonded. The structures are discussed in terms of simple Lewis structures, the VSEPR model, and delocalized π molecular orbitals.
Richard D. Bardgett and T. Hefin Jones
- Published in print:
- 2012
- Published Online:
- December 2013
- ISBN:
- 9780199575923
- eISBN:
- 9780191774843
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199575923.003.0020
- Subject:
- Biology, Ecology
This chapter provides an overview of the four chapters in Section 4. Chapter 4.1 considers how climate change can impact on soils and ecosystem services. Chapter 4.2 illustrates how terrestrial ...
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This chapter provides an overview of the four chapters in Section 4. Chapter 4.1 considers how climate change can impact on soils and ecosystem services. Chapter 4.2 illustrates how terrestrial ecosystems and their soils are strongly affected by nitrogen enrichment. Chapter 4.3 covers the topic of urbanization, soils, and ecosystem services. Finally, Chapter 4.4 examines land use for agriculture, and its impacts on soils and ecosystem services.Less
This chapter provides an overview of the four chapters in Section 4. Chapter 4.1 considers how climate change can impact on soils and ecosystem services. Chapter 4.2 illustrates how terrestrial ecosystems and their soils are strongly affected by nitrogen enrichment. Chapter 4.3 covers the topic of urbanization, soils, and ecosystem services. Finally, Chapter 4.4 examines land use for agriculture, and its impacts on soils and ecosystem services.
Håkan Rydin and John K. Jeglum
- Published in print:
- 2006
- Published Online:
- April 2010
- ISBN:
- 9780198528722
- eISBN:
- 9780191728211
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780198528722.003.0009
- Subject:
- Biology, Ecology
This chapter discusses how nutrients, light, and temperature vary within and among peatland types. The chemical and biological processes that govern the circulation and availability of nitrogen are ...
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This chapter discusses how nutrients, light, and temperature vary within and among peatland types. The chemical and biological processes that govern the circulation and availability of nitrogen are presented. The effects of nutrient limitations for plant growth and species composition are also discussed for other elements, such as potassium and phosphorus. The variation in light is presented, and distinctions are made between plants adapted to open sites and forest-shaded species. Temperature and moisture regimes are key climatic factors explaining the rates of peat accumulation and decomposition, and the global distribution of peatlands. Climates are described at three spatial scales from the regional macroclimate, via the mesoclimate of a particular peatland to the microclimatic variation; for instance, the temperature variation between hummocks and hollows.Less
This chapter discusses how nutrients, light, and temperature vary within and among peatland types. The chemical and biological processes that govern the circulation and availability of nitrogen are presented. The effects of nutrient limitations for plant growth and species composition are also discussed for other elements, such as potassium and phosphorus. The variation in light is presented, and distinctions are made between plants adapted to open sites and forest-shaded species. Temperature and moisture regimes are key climatic factors explaining the rates of peat accumulation and decomposition, and the global distribution of peatlands. Climates are described at three spatial scales from the regional macroclimate, via the mesoclimate of a particular peatland to the microclimatic variation; for instance, the temperature variation between hummocks and hollows.
Richard D. Bardgett
- Published in print:
- 2005
- Published Online:
- April 2010
- ISBN:
- 9780198525035
- eISBN:
- 9780191728181
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780198525035.003.0003
- Subject:
- Biology, Ecology
This chapter illustrates how the activities of soil biota, especially their trophic interactions, influence the processes of decomposition and nutrient cycling, and examines the significance of this ...
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This chapter illustrates how the activities of soil biota, especially their trophic interactions, influence the processes of decomposition and nutrient cycling, and examines the significance of this for material flow and plant production in terrestrial ecosystems. The focus is on the availability of nitrogen and phosphorus since they are the two nutrients that most limit primary productivity in natural and managed terrestrial ecosystems. First, the issue of how soil microbes regulate the internal cycling of nutrients in terrestrial ecosystems is discussed. This is followed by a discussion of how soil animals influence nutrient cycling and plant growth through their feeding activities on microbes and other fauna.Less
This chapter illustrates how the activities of soil biota, especially their trophic interactions, influence the processes of decomposition and nutrient cycling, and examines the significance of this for material flow and plant production in terrestrial ecosystems. The focus is on the availability of nitrogen and phosphorus since they are the two nutrients that most limit primary productivity in natural and managed terrestrial ecosystems. First, the issue of how soil microbes regulate the internal cycling of nutrients in terrestrial ecosystems is discussed. This is followed by a discussion of how soil animals influence nutrient cycling and plant growth through their feeding activities on microbes and other fauna.
Richard D. Bardgett
- Published in print:
- 2005
- Published Online:
- April 2010
- ISBN:
- 9780198525035
- eISBN:
- 9780191728181
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780198525035.003.0006
- Subject:
- Biology, Ecology
This chapter discusses how particular global change phenomena impact on soil biota and their activities, and how these effects feedback to nutrient dynamics and the productivity and structure of ...
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This chapter discusses how particular global change phenomena impact on soil biota and their activities, and how these effects feedback to nutrient dynamics and the productivity and structure of above-ground communities. Earth's ecosystems are subject to multiple and simultaneous assaults of global change phenomena. The chapter focuses on selected global change phenomena — climate change, nitrogen deposition, invasive species, and land use change — to explore how single components of global change impact on soil and ecosystem processes.Less
This chapter discusses how particular global change phenomena impact on soil biota and their activities, and how these effects feedback to nutrient dynamics and the productivity and structure of above-ground communities. Earth's ecosystems are subject to multiple and simultaneous assaults of global change phenomena. The chapter focuses on selected global change phenomena — climate change, nitrogen deposition, invasive species, and land use change — to explore how single components of global change impact on soil and ecosystem processes.
Stanley S. Hillman, Philip C. Withers, Robert C. Drewes, and Stanley D. Hillyard
- Published in print:
- 2008
- Published Online:
- April 2010
- ISBN:
- 9780198570325
- eISBN:
- 9780191728259
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780198570325.003.0003
- Subject:
- Biology, Animal Biology, Aquatic Biology
This chapter delineates the specialized physiological characteristics of amphibians, including anatomy and physiology of physiological processes of amphibians that have served as unique and powerful ...
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This chapter delineates the specialized physiological characteristics of amphibians, including anatomy and physiology of physiological processes of amphibians that have served as unique and powerful model systems for other vertebrates. It first describes how the skin and urinary bladder have been models for water and solute transport, in both water and air, followed by an analysis of the physiological mechanisms involved in the remarkable capacity of amphibians to withstand dehydration. The biology and physiology of thermoregulation is then explored, followed by an analysis of the range and limitations of temperature to activity metabolism, both aerobic and anaerobic. The diverse range of nitrogen excretory products of amphibians, along with their varied kidney physiology, is then described. Finally, the benefits of developmental plasticity are explored as a model.Less
This chapter delineates the specialized physiological characteristics of amphibians, including anatomy and physiology of physiological processes of amphibians that have served as unique and powerful model systems for other vertebrates. It first describes how the skin and urinary bladder have been models for water and solute transport, in both water and air, followed by an analysis of the physiological mechanisms involved in the remarkable capacity of amphibians to withstand dehydration. The biology and physiology of thermoregulation is then explored, followed by an analysis of the range and limitations of temperature to activity metabolism, both aerobic and anaerobic. The diverse range of nitrogen excretory products of amphibians, along with their varied kidney physiology, is then described. Finally, the benefits of developmental plasticity are explored as a model.
Kristin Shrader-Frechette
- Published in print:
- 2011
- Published Online:
- January 2012
- ISBN:
- 9780199794638
- eISBN:
- 9780199919277
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199794638.003.0001
- Subject:
- Philosophy, Moral Philosophy
Chapter 1 begins by stressing the severity of climate change (CC) and showing how, contrary to popular belief, atomic energy is not a viable solution to ...
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Chapter 1 begins by stressing the severity of climate change (CC) and showing how, contrary to popular belief, atomic energy is not a viable solution to CC. Many scientists and most market proponents agree that renewable energy and energy efficiencies are better options. The chapter also shows that government subsidies for oil and nuclear power are the result of flawed science, poor ethics, short-term thinking, and special-interest influence. The chapter has 7 sections, the first of which surveys four major components of the energy crisis. These are oil addiction, non-CC-related deaths from fossil-fuel pollution, nuclear-weapons proliferation, and catastrophic CC. The second section summarizes some of the powerful evidence for global CC. The third section uses historical, ahistorical, Rawlsian, and utilitarian ethical principles to show how developed nations, especially the US, are most responsible for human-caused CC. The fourth section shows why climate-change skeptics, such as “deniers” who doubt CC is real, and “delayers” who say that it should not yet be addressed, have no valid objections. Instead, they all err scientifically and ethically. The fifth section illustrates that all modern scientific methods—and scientific consensus since at least 1995—confirm the reality of global CC. Essentially all expert-scientific analyses published in refereed, scientific-professional journals confirm the reality of global CC. The sixth section of the chapter shows how fossil-fuel special interests have contributed to the continued CC debate largely by paying non-experts to deny or challenge CC. The seventh section of the chapter provides an outline of each chapter in the book, noting that this book makes use of both scientific and ethical analyses to show why nuclear proponents’ arguments err, why CC deniers are wrong, and how scientific-methodological understanding can advance sound energy policy—including conservation, renewable energy, and energy efficiencies.Less
Chapter 1 begins by stressing the severity of climate change (CC) and showing how, contrary to popular belief, atomic energy is not a viable solution to CC. Many scientists and most market proponents agree that renewable energy and energy efficiencies are better options. The chapter also shows that government subsidies for oil and nuclear power are the result of flawed science, poor ethics, short-term thinking, and special-interest influence. The chapter has 7 sections, the first of which surveys four major components of the energy crisis. These are oil addiction, non-CC-related deaths from fossil-fuel pollution, nuclear-weapons proliferation, and catastrophic CC. The second section summarizes some of the powerful evidence for global CC. The third section uses historical, ahistorical, Rawlsian, and utilitarian ethical principles to show how developed nations, especially the US, are most responsible for human-caused CC. The fourth section shows why climate-change skeptics, such as “deniers” who doubt CC is real, and “delayers” who say that it should not yet be addressed, have no valid objections. Instead, they all err scientifically and ethically. The fifth section illustrates that all modern scientific methods—and scientific consensus since at least 1995—confirm the reality of global CC. Essentially all expert-scientific analyses published in refereed, scientific-professional journals confirm the reality of global CC. The sixth section of the chapter shows how fossil-fuel special interests have contributed to the continued CC debate largely by paying non-experts to deny or challenge CC. The seventh section of the chapter provides an outline of each chapter in the book, noting that this book makes use of both scientific and ethical analyses to show why nuclear proponents’ arguments err, why CC deniers are wrong, and how scientific-methodological understanding can advance sound energy policy—including conservation, renewable energy, and energy efficiencies.
Kshama Harpankar
- Published in print:
- 2020
- Published Online:
- August 2020
- ISBN:
- 9780190949501
- eISBN:
- 9780197528907
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/oso/9780190949501.003.0018
- Subject:
- Political Science, Political Theory
Sustainable development goal 2 aims to “end hunger, achieve food security and improved nutrition, and promote sustainable agriculture.” SDG2 is one of the most challenging goals to achieve, as it ...
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Sustainable development goal 2 aims to “end hunger, achieve food security and improved nutrition, and promote sustainable agriculture.” SDG2 is one of the most challenging goals to achieve, as it needs to be achieved within the constraints of the multiple demands agriculture faces. The goal of this chapter is to discuss the roles that science, technology, and innovation (STI) can play in optimal nitrogen management as a way to meet sustainable development goal 2. Optimal nitrogen management will enhance food security by improving yields, and it will promote sustainable agriculture by limiting environmental externalities associated with nitrogen. Specifically, this chapter aims to address the following two questions: 1) How can new technologies help boost agricultural productivity while also reducing nitrogen pollution? And, 2) What policy and institutional changes will be needed to encourage innovation and diffusion of these technologies in developing countries? The authors present STI possibilities for improved nitrogen management in the following categories: new types of nitrogen fertilizers, integrated soil and fertility management technologies, precision agriculture technologies, technologies aiding biological nitrogen fixation, and biotechnology solutions. The chapter ends with a discussion of institutional and policy changes needed for widespread adoption of the technology options among resource-poor smallholder farmers.Less
Sustainable development goal 2 aims to “end hunger, achieve food security and improved nutrition, and promote sustainable agriculture.” SDG2 is one of the most challenging goals to achieve, as it needs to be achieved within the constraints of the multiple demands agriculture faces. The goal of this chapter is to discuss the roles that science, technology, and innovation (STI) can play in optimal nitrogen management as a way to meet sustainable development goal 2. Optimal nitrogen management will enhance food security by improving yields, and it will promote sustainable agriculture by limiting environmental externalities associated with nitrogen. Specifically, this chapter aims to address the following two questions: 1) How can new technologies help boost agricultural productivity while also reducing nitrogen pollution? And, 2) What policy and institutional changes will be needed to encourage innovation and diffusion of these technologies in developing countries? The authors present STI possibilities for improved nitrogen management in the following categories: new types of nitrogen fertilizers, integrated soil and fertility management technologies, precision agriculture technologies, technologies aiding biological nitrogen fixation, and biotechnology solutions. The chapter ends with a discussion of institutional and policy changes needed for widespread adoption of the technology options among resource-poor smallholder farmers.
David A. Cleveland
- Published in print:
- 2013
- Published Online:
- September 2016
- ISBN:
- 9780520277410
- eISBN:
- 9780520957084
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- University of California Press
- DOI:
- 10.1525/california/9780520277410.003.0009
- Subject:
- Society and Culture, Technology and Society
Agrifood systems divert resources from biogeochemical cycles (e.g., carbon and nitrogen cycles) to produce food, with major negative effects, including global warming. Global warming is changing ...
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Agrifood systems divert resources from biogeochemical cycles (e.g., carbon and nitrogen cycles) to produce food, with major negative effects, including global warming. Global warming is changing water distribution and temperatures that will have mostly negative effects on agrifood systems. Changes in the agrifood systems could make major contributions to decreasing greenhouse gas emissions (e.g., sequestering soil carbon with organic fertilizers and reducing tillage; reducing fossil fuel use; reducing food waste; and reducing animal, processed, and imported foods in diets). These changes will require changed assumptions and behaviors, but could also have major synergistic effects. For example, in addition to reducing greenhouse gas emissions, changing diets could improve health, reduce medical costs, reduce water consumption, and free large areas of land devoted to animal food production.Less
Agrifood systems divert resources from biogeochemical cycles (e.g., carbon and nitrogen cycles) to produce food, with major negative effects, including global warming. Global warming is changing water distribution and temperatures that will have mostly negative effects on agrifood systems. Changes in the agrifood systems could make major contributions to decreasing greenhouse gas emissions (e.g., sequestering soil carbon with organic fertilizers and reducing tillage; reducing fossil fuel use; reducing food waste; and reducing animal, processed, and imported foods in diets). These changes will require changed assumptions and behaviors, but could also have major synergistic effects. For example, in addition to reducing greenhouse gas emissions, changing diets could improve health, reduce medical costs, reduce water consumption, and free large areas of land devoted to animal food production.
David L. Kirchman
- Published in print:
- 2021
- Published Online:
- February 2021
- ISBN:
- 9780197520376
- eISBN:
- 9780197520406
- Item type:
- book
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/oso/9780197520376.001.0001
- Subject:
- Biology, Aquatic Biology
This book explores the many rivers, lakes, and oceans that are losing oxygen. Aquatic habitats with little dissolved oxygen are called dead zones because nothing can live there except some microbes. ...
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This book explores the many rivers, lakes, and oceans that are losing oxygen. Aquatic habitats with little dissolved oxygen are called dead zones because nothing can live there except some microbes. The number and size of dead zones are increasing worldwide. The book shows that oxygen loss causes fish kills, devastates bottom-dwelling biota, reduces biological diversity, and rearranges aquatic food webs. In the 19th century in rich countries and in poor regions today, dead zones are accompanied by waterborne diseases that kill thousands of people. The open oceans are losing oxygen because of climate change, whereas dead zones in coastal waters and seas are caused by excessive nutrients, which promote excessive growth of algae and eventually oxygen depletion. Work by Gene Turner and Nancy Rabalais demonstrated that nutrients in the Gulf of Mexico come from fertilizers used in the US Midwest, home to the most productive cropland in the world. Agriculture is also the biggest source of nutrients fuelling dead zones in the Baltic Sea and other coastal waters. Today, fertilizers contaminate drinking water and kick-start harmful algal blooms in local lakes and reservoirs. Nutrient pollution in some regions has declined because of buffer zones, cover crops, and precision agriculture, but more needs to be done. The book concludes by arguing that each of us can do our part by changing our diet; eating less, especially eating less red meat, would improve our health and the health of the environment. A better diet could reduce the amount of greenhouse gas emitted by agriculture and shrink dead zones worldwide.Less
This book explores the many rivers, lakes, and oceans that are losing oxygen. Aquatic habitats with little dissolved oxygen are called dead zones because nothing can live there except some microbes. The number and size of dead zones are increasing worldwide. The book shows that oxygen loss causes fish kills, devastates bottom-dwelling biota, reduces biological diversity, and rearranges aquatic food webs. In the 19th century in rich countries and in poor regions today, dead zones are accompanied by waterborne diseases that kill thousands of people. The open oceans are losing oxygen because of climate change, whereas dead zones in coastal waters and seas are caused by excessive nutrients, which promote excessive growth of algae and eventually oxygen depletion. Work by Gene Turner and Nancy Rabalais demonstrated that nutrients in the Gulf of Mexico come from fertilizers used in the US Midwest, home to the most productive cropland in the world. Agriculture is also the biggest source of nutrients fuelling dead zones in the Baltic Sea and other coastal waters. Today, fertilizers contaminate drinking water and kick-start harmful algal blooms in local lakes and reservoirs. Nutrient pollution in some regions has declined because of buffer zones, cover crops, and precision agriculture, but more needs to be done. The book concludes by arguing that each of us can do our part by changing our diet; eating less, especially eating less red meat, would improve our health and the health of the environment. A better diet could reduce the amount of greenhouse gas emitted by agriculture and shrink dead zones worldwide.
Han Dolman
- Published in print:
- 2019
- Published Online:
- June 2019
- ISBN:
- 9780198779308
- eISBN:
- 9780191824388
- Item type:
- book
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/oso/9780198779308.001.0001
- Subject:
- Physics, Geophysics, Atmospheric and Environmental Physics
This book describes the interaction of the main biogeochemical cycles of the Earth and the physics of climate. It takes the perspective of Earth as an integrated system and provides examples of both ...
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This book describes the interaction of the main biogeochemical cycles of the Earth and the physics of climate. It takes the perspective of Earth as an integrated system and provides examples of both changes in the current climate and those in the geological past. The first three chapters offer a general introduction to the context of the book, outlining the climate system as a complex interplay between biogeochemistry and physics and describing the tools available for understanding climate: observations and models. These chapters describe the basics of the system, the rates and magnitudes and the crucial aspects of biogeochemical cycles needed to understand their functioning. The second part of the book consists of four chapters that describe the physics required to understand the interaction of the climate with biogeochemistry and change. These chapters describe the physics of radiation, and that of the atmosphere, ocean circulation and thermodynamics. The interaction of aerosols with radiation and clouds is addressed in an additional chapter. The third part of the book deals with Earth’s (bio)geochemical cycles. These chapters focus on the stocks and fluxes of the main reservoirs of Earth’s biogeochemical cycles—atmosphere, land and ocean—and their role in the cycles of carbon, oxygen, nitrogen, iron, phosphorus, oxygen, sulphur and water, as well as their interactions with climate. The final two chapters describe possible mitigation and adaptation actions, in relation to recent climate agreements, but always with an emphasis on the biogeochemical aspects.Less
This book describes the interaction of the main biogeochemical cycles of the Earth and the physics of climate. It takes the perspective of Earth as an integrated system and provides examples of both changes in the current climate and those in the geological past. The first three chapters offer a general introduction to the context of the book, outlining the climate system as a complex interplay between biogeochemistry and physics and describing the tools available for understanding climate: observations and models. These chapters describe the basics of the system, the rates and magnitudes and the crucial aspects of biogeochemical cycles needed to understand their functioning. The second part of the book consists of four chapters that describe the physics required to understand the interaction of the climate with biogeochemistry and change. These chapters describe the physics of radiation, and that of the atmosphere, ocean circulation and thermodynamics. The interaction of aerosols with radiation and clouds is addressed in an additional chapter. The third part of the book deals with Earth’s (bio)geochemical cycles. These chapters focus on the stocks and fluxes of the main reservoirs of Earth’s biogeochemical cycles—atmosphere, land and ocean—and their role in the cycles of carbon, oxygen, nitrogen, iron, phosphorus, oxygen, sulphur and water, as well as their interactions with climate. The final two chapters describe possible mitigation and adaptation actions, in relation to recent climate agreements, but always with an emphasis on the biogeochemical aspects.
Melany C. Fisk, Paul D. Brooks, and Steven K. Schmidt
- Published in print:
- 2001
- Published Online:
- November 2020
- ISBN:
- 9780195117288
- eISBN:
- 9780197561171
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/oso/9780195117288.003.0019
- Subject:
- Environmental Science, Applied Ecology
In this chapter, we discuss the current understanding of internal N cycling, or the flow of N through plant and soil components, in the Niwot Ridge alpine ecosystem. We consider the internal N ...
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In this chapter, we discuss the current understanding of internal N cycling, or the flow of N through plant and soil components, in the Niwot Ridge alpine ecosystem. We consider the internal N cycle largely as the opposing processes of uptake and incorporation of N into organic form and mineralization of N from organic to inorganic form. We will outline the major organic pools in which N is stored and discuss the transfers of N into and from those pools. With a synthesis of information regarding the various N pools and relative turnover of N through them, we hope to provide greater understanding of the relative function of different components of the alpine N cycle. Because of the short growing season, cold temperatures, and water regimes tending either toward very dry or very wet extremes, the alpine tundra is not a favorable ecosystem for either production or decomposition. Water availability, temperature, and nutrient availability (N in particular) all can limit alpine plant growth (chapter 9). Cold soils also inhibit decomposition so that N remains bound in organic matter and is unavailable for plant uptake (chapter 11). Consequently, N cycling in the alpine often is presumed to be slow and conservative (Rehder 1976a, 1976b; Holzmann and Haselwandter 1988). Nonetheless, studies reveal large spatial variation in primary production and N cycling in alpine tundra across gradients of snowpack accumulation, growing season water availability, and plant species composition (May and Webber, 1982, Walker et al., 1994, Bowman, 1994, Fisk et al. 1998; chapter 9). Furthermore, evidence for relatively large N transformations under seasonal snowcover (Brooks et al., 1995a, 1998) and maintenance of high microbial biomass in frozen soils (Lipson et al. 1999a) provide a complex temporal component of N cycling on Niwot Ridge. Our discussion of N cycling on Niwot Ridge will focus on two main points: first, the spatial variation in N turnover in relation to snowpack regimes and plant community distributions; and second, the temporal variability of N transformations during both snow-free and snow-covered time periods.
Less
In this chapter, we discuss the current understanding of internal N cycling, or the flow of N through plant and soil components, in the Niwot Ridge alpine ecosystem. We consider the internal N cycle largely as the opposing processes of uptake and incorporation of N into organic form and mineralization of N from organic to inorganic form. We will outline the major organic pools in which N is stored and discuss the transfers of N into and from those pools. With a synthesis of information regarding the various N pools and relative turnover of N through them, we hope to provide greater understanding of the relative function of different components of the alpine N cycle. Because of the short growing season, cold temperatures, and water regimes tending either toward very dry or very wet extremes, the alpine tundra is not a favorable ecosystem for either production or decomposition. Water availability, temperature, and nutrient availability (N in particular) all can limit alpine plant growth (chapter 9). Cold soils also inhibit decomposition so that N remains bound in organic matter and is unavailable for plant uptake (chapter 11). Consequently, N cycling in the alpine often is presumed to be slow and conservative (Rehder 1976a, 1976b; Holzmann and Haselwandter 1988). Nonetheless, studies reveal large spatial variation in primary production and N cycling in alpine tundra across gradients of snowpack accumulation, growing season water availability, and plant species composition (May and Webber, 1982, Walker et al., 1994, Bowman, 1994, Fisk et al. 1998; chapter 9). Furthermore, evidence for relatively large N transformations under seasonal snowcover (Brooks et al., 1995a, 1998) and maintenance of high microbial biomass in frozen soils (Lipson et al. 1999a) provide a complex temporal component of N cycling on Niwot Ridge. Our discussion of N cycling on Niwot Ridge will focus on two main points: first, the spatial variation in N turnover in relation to snowpack regimes and plant community distributions; and second, the temporal variability of N transformations during both snow-free and snow-covered time periods.
Peter Manning
- Published in print:
- 2012
- Published Online:
- December 2013
- ISBN:
- 9780199575923
- eISBN:
- 9780191774843
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199575923.003.0022
- Subject:
- Biology, Ecology
Nitrogen inputs into terrestrial ecosystems have more than doubled since pre-industrial times, causing significant disruption of aboveground and belowground communities, and the ecosystem services ...
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Nitrogen inputs into terrestrial ecosystems have more than doubled since pre-industrial times, causing significant disruption of aboveground and belowground communities, and the ecosystem services they regulate. This chapter reviews the causes and consequences of nitrogen enrichment, with a focus on effects upon plants and the soil biota, including saprotrophic fungi and bacteria and mycorrhizal fungi. It explores the implications of these changes for several key ecosystem services: greenhouse gas emissions, carbon sequestration, food production, clean water supply, and human health and biodiversity conservation, highlighting the trade-offs between these services that nitrogen enrichment generates. The chapter finishes with recommendations for future research in this field, in particular the requirement for a holistic but mechanistic knowledge of how nitrogen alters higher-level ecosystem services.Less
Nitrogen inputs into terrestrial ecosystems have more than doubled since pre-industrial times, causing significant disruption of aboveground and belowground communities, and the ecosystem services they regulate. This chapter reviews the causes and consequences of nitrogen enrichment, with a focus on effects upon plants and the soil biota, including saprotrophic fungi and bacteria and mycorrhizal fungi. It explores the implications of these changes for several key ecosystem services: greenhouse gas emissions, carbon sequestration, food production, clean water supply, and human health and biodiversity conservation, highlighting the trade-offs between these services that nitrogen enrichment generates. The chapter finishes with recommendations for future research in this field, in particular the requirement for a holistic but mechanistic knowledge of how nitrogen alters higher-level ecosystem services.
