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The question of what makes music “rasaful” is continued in chapter 5, but with more of a focus on the moment of performance. In particular, the role of improvisation in creating rasa, and rasa as a criterion for judging excellence (including at gamelan competitions) are explored.

This chapter focuses on two study participants who have both acquired high levels of expertise in traditional Western classical musicianship along unique syzygistic trajectories. The analyses are framed according to Gagné's model of musical talent and giftedness on the one hand, and by adapting Abbott and Collins' model of talent development in sports on the other. It shows how a wide range of promotive factors facilitated the development of expert musical talent.

Educational behaviorists once claimed that since it is impossible to know what happens in a student's mind, teachers should only be concerned with what students do “overtly” — that is, how they behave — their responses to educational acts. This chapter argues that the development of musicianship happens in action, through action, and within action. However, the human body plays a crucial but (unfortunately) a taken-for-granted and opaque role in the development of agency. In this chapter, the musical mind and body is considered within a naturalist framework of holistic duality, but without dualism. In this duality, a human organism is a functional whole; the mind and body are inseparable, though there are different aspects to this singleness. The feeling, sensing, and experiencing body is engaged with musical sounds and their consequences in many ways, whether we are aware of it or not. The chapter contends that the body is not only an instrument through which musical thinking takes place, but also can be taken as a conscious and explicit object of transformation.

In his praxial philosophy of music education, David Elliott argues that music education must embody the essence of music as a worldwide array of social-artistic practices, as something that people everywhere “do” musically (as listeners and makers). This is especially the case in the education of children. Young children do not separate thinking, listening, doing, playing, and learning. Many approaches to childhood education stress the active participation of children in music making prior to learning theoretical concepts about music (Elliott's “formal knowledge”). This chapter examines the varied and dynamic world of elementary music education in relation to selected principles in Elliott's 1995 book Music Matters: A New Philosophy of Music Education. It discusses Elliott's praxialism and its compatibility with many traditional approaches to elementary music education, teaching children about musicianship, composition, arrangement, and improvisation in music, use of technology in music education, conducting, movement, music listening, and myths about the education of children.

One of the most contentious issues in music pedagogy concerns when and how to introduce notation to a beginning instrumentalist. Most current teaching introduces musical notation very early in the process, perhaps because many teachers believe that beginners who are taught by ear will never reach the same level of reading proficiency as children who are introduced to notation from their earliest lessons. In contrast, proponents of the sound before sign approach argue that children will have difficulty learning to read notation unless their musical knowledge is sufficiently developed for them to be able to relate the sound of what they can already play with the symbols used to represent them. This chapter presents a review of literature resulting in the identification of six principles that can be used to develop the complex range of skills needed for a child to become musically literate. It argues that emphasizing notational skills too early can lead to a decreased sensitivity to the unified patterns that children spontaneously observe when listening to music. Stressing notation, with few opportunities to perform music by ear, or rote learning, with equally few opportunities to develop reading fluency, restricts overall musicianship and the types of skills needed for a musician to succeed long-term.

This chapter provides a discussion on the brains of musicians. It introduces first the structural brain differences between musicians and nonmusicians. In the search for a morphological substrate of musicianship, several cross-sectional studies comparing adult musicians with nonmusicians were carried out. A priori defined anatomical regions were selected based on the relevance for musical functions and on data derived from human developmental studies as well as animal experimental studies suggesting a high degree of plasticity. Then, the functional brain differences between musicians and nonmusicians are explained. It also emphasizes the implicit musical ability of the human brain. Experimental animal studies strongly support the existence of microstructural plasticity. Many studies have provided evidence for functional and structural differences comparing musicians with nonmusicians.

This chapter describes a highly significant shift in the fundamental paradigm of music psychology to a greater emphasis on purposes, implications, and naturalistic methodologies. The chapter states that currently it is impossible to consider social topics without considering applied topics, and vice versa. This book describes the experimental research that has addressed the structure and content of composition/performance and musical taste. On musicianship, it describes the research on how being a musician helps to formulate identity and on the potential association between musicianship and intellectual ability. On music listening, it describes how people use music actively in everyday situations to address immediate goals. It also describes to the role of music in adolescent subculture; and the role of music in producing profit and health. It also discusses the means of optimally-educating future musicians.

Since composers and musicians are susceptible to the influence of the social world, this chapter describe how composition and musicianship are influenced by this factor. Making music is almost certainly important to people because of social psychological factors such as achievement, motivation, creativity, and identity. The chapter describes musical creativity and what the main theoretical explanations are of how it occurs. The chapter also discusses composition and how the nature of the music a person composes can be influenced by the prevailing musical zeitgeist and also the aspects of the composer's biographical milieu. The chapter also discusses several aspects of musicianship. These include personality differences between people who play different instruments; identity as a musician; environmental influences in the development of musical skill; evaluations of musical performances; performance anxiety; and the much-discussed ‘Mozart effect’.

This chapter discusses the importance of “breath support” in singing by making an analogy to baking. It argues that, unless the singer learns to turn up “breath support”—the appropriate energy source in singing—it does not matter at all how fine the basic vocal ingredients, the sensitive musicianship, or the elegance of phrase or embellishment; the vocal cake will remain unpalatable to the professionally discriminating taste. Much of the “coaching” in master classes devoted to interpretation and stylistic nuance is often little more than placing icing and decoration upon an incompletely baked vocal cake. Placing an overlay of finesse on the unformed and uncoordinated vocal instrument is like decorating a poorly baked cake. Until the energy source and phonation are unified in the singing instrument, artistic gloss is meaningless. It is important to bake the cake thoroughly and firmly establish the substance of the voice before attempting to decorate either of them.

This chapter argues that the art of singing, which has been declared dying for more than two and a half centuries, remains remarkably alive. It cannot be denied that there are singers lacking sufficient vocal endowment, adequate technical training, and essential musicianship who make auditions and who advance in major competitions. Yet anyone who frequently adjudicates or attends today's singing contests must report that the general level of artistic singing has improved over the past thirty years. Herbert Witherspoon's comment of more than three quarters of a century ago is an appropriate perspective for the singer and voice teacher of the present decade: “There have always been few good singers and fewer great ones. So a tirade about present-day conditions in comparison with the glorious past is of no use. Let us take the world as we find it. Perhaps if we heard the singers of a century or two ago we should not care for them. We do not know! Our task is with today, not yesterday.”

This chapter highlights the multisensory pedagogical tools presented in earlier chapters-mapping, moving, and verbally describing-but applies them to teaching and learning in school choirs, bands, orchestras, and other types of performance-based classes. Here are ways of nurturing student musicians to broaden their understanding of musical intersections-of musical knowledge, affective sensitivity, technique, imagination, and musical craft-so to help them improve their performances. The relationship between traditional music curricula and comprehensive music curricular is also presented. Ideally, all school music offerings facilitate the development of a variety of student musical behaviors, including music listening, while maintaining the unique focus of each class. Specific kinesthetic and visual metaphors (via verbal description) for use in music performance settings are described, demonstrating the possibilities for developing performance skills at the individual and ensemble level.

The chapter examines the impact of sound recordings, broadcasting, film, and other media on the role of cantors in Jewish community life throughout the twentieth century. As these new media aestheticized cantors’ devotional musicianship, they have transformed the cantor from a spiritual messenger into a celebrity performer, who has become the center of communal attention as opposed to a conduit to the divine. These media have also situated cantors as protagonists in a variety of narratives in which cantors figure as exemplars of American Jewry, negotiating the demands of communitarian tradition and the lure of modern culture, centered on individual consciousness and creativity.

The women's orchestra movement was a direct response to the dearth of public performance opportunities for women. The first American women's orchestras were founded in the 1870s. The career model and the club model sought a quality that would today be defined as professionalism. The two models evolved and eventually merged into a new, professional women's symphony model that was characteristic of women's orchestras founded in the twentieth century and enabled women instrumentalists to enter orchestras. Like the Vienna Lady Orchestra, the Ladies Elite Orchestra succeeded in combining novelty and musicianship. The career and club models together defined early women's orchestras but could also limit them. The Woman's Symphony Orchestra of Chicago was the most prominent and successful example of the new professional model. The work of nineteenth-century women's orchestras had extended women's performance opportunities and removed many of the barriers that had limited their work.

With the goals of increased enrollment and the development of lifelong musicianship skills, this chapter presents suggestions regarding potential changes to existing music education curricula for secondary schools in the United States. These suggestions involve the areas of teacher control, musical and creative decision making, formal concerts, size of music classes, the instruments and musical styles studied in schools, traditional notation, the development of lifelong musicianship skills, program entry points, and the achievement of functional musicianship. Additionally, new courses are suggested and described for undergraduate music education programs that could help prepare preservice music teachers for a different teaching/learning model.

Public access to secular music started the cult of superstars. Composition matched this new demand. Stars were eclipsed by ever greater virtuosity. This created a demand for more powerful instruments and better concert halls. Fame was equally available for the conductors. The pattern continues to the present day, with faster tempi, more power in performances, larger orchestras, and access to a wider range of music from recordings and broadcasts. We like this concept of idols, even if we can rapidly switch them off, to replace them with new ones. Nevertheless, they influence our musical tastes. A key factor in this is attributed to the new sounds generated by the science of recordings and electronics. The science that has allowed superstars to be heard worldwide has also changed the public perception of musicians and raised them from the unfashionable to include some with the status of musical heroes (and heroines).