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Mathematics for Humans

Robert Hanna

in Kant, Science, and Human Nature

This chapter examines Kant's much-criticized views on mathematics in general and arithmetic in particular. It makes a case for the claim that Kant's theory of arithmetic is not subject to the most ... More

This chapter examines Kant's much-criticized views on mathematics in general and arithmetic in particular. It makes a case for the claim that Kant's theory of arithmetic is not subject to the most familiar and forceful objection against it, namely, that his doctrine of the dependence of arithmetic on time is plainly false, or even worse, simply unintelligible. It is argued that Kant's doctrine about time and arithmetic is highly original, fully intelligible, and with qualifications due to the inherent limitations of his conceptions of arithmetic and logic, to an important extent defensible. The most philosophically striking thing about Kant's doctrine is the fact that arithmetic turns out to be a paradigm of the exact sciences (exacten Naturwissenschaften) only by virtue of its ultimately being one of the human or moral sciences (Geisteswissenschaften).Less

The Realm of Sensibility

Stephen Gaukroger

in The Collapse of Mechanism and the Rise of Sensibility: Science and the Shaping of Modernity, 1680-1760

The mid‐eighteenth century rethinking of the aims of natural philosophy was one in which the central role accorded to rationality in the first half of the century now comes to be translated into ... More

The mid‐eighteenth century rethinking of the aims of natural philosophy was one in which the central role accorded to rationality in the first half of the century now comes to be translated into terms of sensibility. The task was seen as not just one of understanding the natural world but also that of understanding our place in that natural world, and the move to sensibility brings with it a new degree of success in this enterprise. Sensibility allows connections to be made between natural‐philosophical and moral, political, and psychological theories in a new way, shaping a new field of the ‘moral sciences’. The chapter examines the rise of a concern with sensibility in the Republic of Letters, the development of notions of sensibility and irritability in physiology, and the emergence of philosophical discussion of moral sensibility and the unity of sensibility.Less

Moral Science

Craig Smith

in Adam Ferguson and the Idea of Civil Society: Moral Science in the Scottish Enlightenment

This chapter outlines Ferguson’s commitment to an empirical, observation based, form of moral science. It begins by looking at Ferguson’s critique of the philosophical vices of existing schools of ... More

This chapter outlines Ferguson’s commitment to an empirical, observation based, form of moral science. It begins by looking at Ferguson’s critique of the philosophical vices of existing schools of thought. Ferguson criticises these as being excessively abstract, imprecise in the use of language and overly complex, or subtle, in their arguments. The chapter argues that Ferguson sought to create a practical philosophy for use in the real world and was in the mainstream of the Scottish Enlightenment’s attempts to use history as data for social theory. The chapter then discusses the various underlying universals of human nature and social life that form the basis of Ferguson’s moral science. A central claim is that Ferguson believed it to be a fact that all humans are censorial creatures who pass judgement on each other leading to the claim that morality is a human universal even while humans disagree on its content.Less

Collegiate Philosophy, 1800–1868

Bruce Kuklick

in A History of Philosophy in America: 1720-2000

For most of the nineteenth century, the study of theology dominated philosophy in American colleges. But collegiate philosophy did begin the process of professionalization, and had an enormous social ... More

For most of the nineteenth century, the study of theology dominated philosophy in American colleges. But collegiate philosophy did begin the process of professionalization, and had an enormous social impact in its elaboration of the moral sciences, a mixture of social science taught from an explicitly normative point of view, grounded in Christianity. The college philosophers, including Francis Bowen at Harvard, Noah Porter at Yale, and James McCosh at Princeton, also purveyed a version of Scottish Realism, which gave ground to German idealism as the century wore on.Less

The Goals of Science Education: The Working Men’s College

Matthew Stanley

in Huxley's Church and Maxwell's Demon: From Theistic Science to Naturalistic Science

The myth of inevitable conflict between science and religion grew out of a genuine battleground - the control of educational institutions in Britain. Huxley and the scientific naturalists were ... More

The myth of inevitable conflict between science and religion grew out of a genuine battleground - the control of educational institutions in Britain. Huxley and the scientific naturalists were frustrated by the close alliance between the universities and the established church, and fought tirelessly to create a space for science education free of any theological control. Figures such as the evangelical Maxwell moved comfortably in these Anglican institutions and saw it as critical that science be taught in the larger context of traditional liberal arts. Despite this deep split, Maxwell and Huxley found themselves at one point volunteering to teach for the same school - the Working Men’s College, a project of the controversial theologian F.D. Maurice. The surprising circumstance of the agnostic and the evangelical teaching science under the guidance of Christian Socialists helps tease out the actual issues involved in the control of Victorian science education.Less

Recovered Goods: Durkheimian Sociology as Virtue Ethics

Philip S. Gorski

in The Post-Secular in Question: Religion in Contemporary Society

This chapter examines what Émile Durkheim could have meant by his statement that sociology is a “moral science” and whether the project it implied is a defensible one. Durkheim's goal was not only to ... More

This chapter examines what Émile Durkheim could have meant by his statement that sociology is a “moral science” and whether the project it implied is a defensible one. Durkheim's goal was not only to study morality scientifically; he also proposed to put morality on a scientific footing—a goal that most contemporary sociologists would be uncomfortable with. This chapter argues that Durkheim's vision of “moral science” was inspired primarily by Aristotelian ethics and that it anticipated many of the ideas of virtue ethics and related schools of thought and research. It considers a number of reasons why there is a connection between Durkheim and Aristotle and why that connection has received so little attention. Finally, it explains why Aristotelian ethics was much better suited to Durkheim's purposes than was Kantianism or utilitarianism.Less

Introduction

Craig Smith

in Adam Ferguson and the Idea of Civil Society: Moral Science in the Scottish Enlightenment

Chapter 1 includes a biography of Adam Ferguson and examines the various critical interpretations of his thought. It concludes that each of these, stoic, civic republican, natural jurisprudence, ... More

Chapter 1 includes a biography of Adam Ferguson and examines the various critical interpretations of his thought. It concludes that each of these, stoic, civic republican, natural jurisprudence, Marxist sociological, Highlander, and conservative, are partial accounts that miss important features of his thought. The introduction makes the case for downplaying the importance of the Essay on the History of Civil Society and for moving beyond the idea of Ferguson as an outlier to the mainstream of the Scottish Enlightenment. It argues that the proper context for understanding Ferguson is to be found in his intellectual project of building a moral pedagogy upon secure empirical and philosophical foundations.Less

St. Thomas and Moral Taxonomy

Lawrence Dewan

in Wisdom, Law, and Virtue: Essays in Thomistic Ethics

In treating the question, “what is philosophy?” in the Republic, Plato carefully set forth the technique for developing an answer. He had to say what he meant by the ... More

In treating the question, “what is philosophy?” in the Republic, Plato carefully set forth the technique for developing an answer. He had to say what he meant by the “knowledge” that the philosopher is said to love. To do so, he presented the general domain of “powers,” readily exemplified by the senses of hearing and sight. He explained that these must be defined in function of that which they are “toward,” as sight is toward light and color, hearing toward sound. Aristotle later presented this as defining a power and an operation in terms of its “opposite,” as he says in the De anima. This chapter looks at some use made of that technique by Thomas Aquinas in presenting moral science. It begins by discussing the first question of the prima secundae, and then moves to question 18, the general discussion of the good and the bad in human acts. Lastly, it looks at one article that is the climax of question 19, on the general intention that should command the ethical domain.Less

The Application of the Rule of Inference to Norms

Hans Kelsen

in General Theory of Norms

This chapter discusses whether the syllogism of traditional propositional logic is applicable — directly or indirectly — to norms. The question is whether the logical thought-process of the syllogism ... More

This chapter discusses whether the syllogism of traditional propositional logic is applicable — directly or indirectly — to norms. The question is whether the logical thought-process of the syllogism occurs in morality and in law, that is, in the process of creating and applying morality and law, and not whether it occurs in moral science and legal science. The latter is beyond question (it is obvious), since inferences have their place in all thought-processes, and thus in all sciences, and so in moral and legal science. But the extremely frequent confusion of morality and moral science and of law and legal science obscures the problem and prevents a clear answer being given to the question being considered.Less

Ought to Is: The Puzzle of Moral Science

John Basl and Christian Coons

in Oxford Studies in Metaethics 12

While many doubt that purely empirical claims can entail any moral claim, moral premises often appear to have empirical entailments. However, unless the moral premises are treated as stipulated ... More

While many doubt that purely empirical claims can entail any moral claim, moral premises often appear to have empirical entailments. However, unless the moral premises are treated as stipulated assumptions, it seems like a serious mistake to infer empirical conclusions from moral premises that entail them. The puzzle is trying to plausibly explain why this is so. This chapter surveys and rejects some proposed solutions. Learning what we can from these failed solutions, a proposal is advanced. The chapter argues that every attempted moral science inference faces a dilemma. The moral premise(s), if true, will be contingent on some empirical fact or not. If not, the moral scientist must employ a false premise or rely on non-moral assumptions that already entail the conclusion. On the other horn, if the moral premises are independent of empirical facts, the premises will entail that some fact we know to be contingent is necessary.Less

The Unity of Moral Science

Barbara K. Redman

in Research Misconduct Policy in Biomedicine: Beyond the Bad-Apple Approach

Policy supporting moral science must be constantly renewed in light of changing conditions, societal expectations, and ongoing discussions of what is involved with protecting science morality. ... More

Policy supporting moral science must be constantly renewed in light of changing conditions, societal expectations, and ongoing discussions of what is involved with protecting science morality. Evidence of the effectiveness of current research misconduct policy and of alternatives is urgently needed but must follow clarification of the goals of such policy. Particular attention must be paid to resource allocation within science, toward realignment of incentives both for individual scientists and for institutions, that support scientific integrity. Large scale corruption of scientific knowledge production by commercial groups has been documented but as yet is not effectively regulated. And moral science requires that research institutions and sponsors take far more decisive roles in reinventing a more responsible science.Less

The Tree of Philosophy: Descartes on Logic, Metaphysics, Physics, and Ethics

Roger Ariew

in Descartes and the First Cartesians

For Descartes a person “should above all try to form for himself a code of morals sufficient to regulate the actions of his life.” After that, he should also study logic and practice for a long time ... More

For Descartes a person “should above all try to form for himself a code of morals sufficient to regulate the actions of his life.” After that, he should also study logic and practice for a long time with some easy and simple questions, such as mathematical ones. This is all a prelude to applying oneself to true philosophy, which Descartes likens to a tree “whose roots are metaphysics, whose trunk is physics, and whose branches, which issue from this trunk, are all the other sciences. These reduce themselves to three principal ones, namely, medicine, mechanics, and morals.” So Descartes’ order of self-instruction is first the formulation of a code of morals, then the study and practice of logic, followed by the study of metaphysics, physics, and the ultimate moral science. This chapter discusses Descartes’ views in that order, although it groups Descartes’ two morals together into a single section.Less

Conclusion: The Legacy of the Sentimental Empiricists

in Science in the Age of Sensibility: The Sentimental Empiricists of the French Enlightenment

The claims of sentimental empiricists have shaped the understanding of the Enlightenment, the Revolution, French culture, and the history and nature of modern science. They have seen the Revolution ... More

The claims of sentimental empiricists have shaped the understanding of the Enlightenment, the Revolution, French culture, and the history and nature of modern science. They have seen the Revolution as the triumph of an abstract, analytical, and mathematical cast of mind. Modern heirs to sentimental empiricism have lamented a French lack of “soul.” And the charges of sentimental empiricists against the sciences of their day must surely have contributed to the belief that the history of modern science has been the straightforward unfolding of an impersonal, dispassionate way of knowing the world. Sentimental empiricism has provided the medium for an ongoing interaction between natural and moral science, and between scientific ideas and social concerns. The ideals of sensibility engaged the physiology of the senses with the problem of moral solipsism; electrical physics with the economy of the grain trade; chemical nomenclature with civic educational policy; the authority of an observed fact with the authority of a town magistracy; scientific with political revolution.Less

Tocqueville the Moralist

Alan S. Kahan

in Tocqueville, Democracy, and Religion: Checks and Balances for Democratic Souls

An analysis of the Introduction to Democracy in America shows how, from the beginning, moral concerns and question of human character and greatness were central to Tocqueville, and that he ... More

An analysis of the Introduction to Democracy in America shows how, from the beginning, moral concerns and question of human character and greatness were central to Tocqueville, and that he constructed a new moral science alongside his famous “new political science.” This new moral science had its origins in the seventeenth-century French moraliste tradition. In this tradition, Tocqueville most resembled the heroic moralism of writers like Corneille, concerned above all with greatness and independence although his analytical and rhetorical techniques borrowed much from La Bruyère, Nicole, and Pascal. His relationship to Pascal has been largely misunderstood. While Tocqueville borrowed much from Nicole and Pascal’s Christian moralism, he turned its meaning upside-down.Less