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A Theory of Moral Choice

Kristen Renwick Monroe

in Ethics in an Age of Terror and Genocide: Identity and Moral Choice

This chapter contemplates the broader themes and implications of this work and constructs a new theory of moral choice. Most existing theories designed to guide moral behavior and examine the ethical ... More

This chapter contemplates the broader themes and implications of this work and constructs a new theory of moral choice. Most existing theories designed to guide moral behavior and examine the ethical acts of others fail to adequately capture what appeared in this volume's analysis to be the critical importance of psychological factors. The chapter thus proposes a new, empirically based identity theory of moral choice. It sketches the outlines of this theory and how it was derived from empirical analysis. The chapter then notes important literature in a wide range of fields, from linguistics and cognitive science to primate behavior and neuroscience, which offers scientific underpinnings for the theory. Finally, the chapter suggests how this theory can usefully help us understand other forms of ethical political behavior.Less

Can Simple Heuristics Explain Moral Inconsistencies?

Nadine Fleischhut and Gerd Gigerenzer

in Simple Heuristics in a Social World

From virtue theory to moral psychology to behavioral economics, a range of disciplines have explained behavior in moral situations by states of the individual mind, such as character traits, moral ... More

From virtue theory to moral psychology to behavioral economics, a range of disciplines have explained behavior in moral situations by states of the individual mind, such as character traits, moral stages, or social preferences. These internal explanations predict that moral behavior is stable across a range of situations and thus struggle with the common observation of inconsistencies in moral judgment and behavior. In contrast, the chapter first outlines how the same heuristic predicts systematically different outcomes, ethical or unethical, depending on differences in the environment. Behavior that appears inconsistent from an internal point of view is actually consistent when the interaction between heuristics and social environments is taken in consideration. Second, this chapter argues that the heuristics determining much of judgment and behavior in moral situations are not specifically moral rules, but morally neutral heuristics that serve particular social goals. Specifying these processes can facilitate understanding when and why humans succeed or fail in pursuing ethical goals. The approach thus emphasizes the relevance of designing better environments, not just better people, in order to effectively promote the ethical goals valued by a society.Less

Animals, Emotions, and Moral Behavior

Mark Rowlands

in Can Animals Be Moral?

This chapter is an introduction to the basic thesis of the book: the possibility of moral action in animals. It explains precisely what this thesis is: animals can act for moral reasons, where these ... More

This chapter is an introduction to the basic thesis of the book: the possibility of moral action in animals. It explains precisely what this thesis is: animals can act for moral reasons, where these reasons take the form of emotions that possess moral content. The occurrence of this thesis—or similar theses—in the work of others is examined.Less

Musical Morality

Peter Kivy

in Antithetical Arts: On the Ancient Quarrel Between Literature and Music

This chapter examines the moral claims of absolute music. It argues that absolute music shares with many other human activities the propensity to produce, in human beings, a kind of ecstasy that ... More

This chapter examines the moral claims of absolute music. It argues that absolute music shares with many other human activities the propensity to produce, in human beings, a kind of ecstasy that might seem appropriate to describe as character-enhancing, consciousness-raising and, therefore, in some vague, perhaps attenuated sense, morally improving, while it lasts. However, being just one of many such activities, absolute music seems to lose that special, magical connection to morality that goes back, one suspects, to its Pythagorean and Orphic roots.Less

Kant’s Ethics

G. A. Cohen

Jonathan Wolff (ed.)

in Lectures on the History of Moral and Political Philosophy

This chapter examines Immanuel Kant's ethics, and particularly his views on reason and faith. According to Thomas Aquinas, there were two avenues whereby men could come to possess knowledge: the way ... More

This chapter examines Immanuel Kant's ethics, and particularly his views on reason and faith. According to Thomas Aquinas, there were two avenues whereby men could come to possess knowledge: the way of reason and the way of faith, of faith in revelation. Unlike Aquinas, Kant entertains not two faculties, but a single faculty in two employments. The chapter considers Kant's motives, and what he advanced as justifications, for treating the sources of knowledge and of moral behavior not as two separate faculties, but as different employments of a single faculty, reason. It offers a general account of Kant's moral philosophy, and more specifically his account of reason and his argument that men are obliged to obey the moral law. It also suggests that the duality of obligation and motivation is present in Kant's ethics and compares Kant's ideas with those of Richard Peters regarding human behavior.Less

Utilitarianism and Rights

Kaushik Basu

in Prelude to Political Economy: A Study of the Social and Political Foundations of Economics

This chapter examines utilitarianism and consequentialism as moral principles of decision-making, and the scope of rights and individual liberty. It argues that it is possible to distinguish between ... More

This chapter examines utilitarianism and consequentialism as moral principles of decision-making, and the scope of rights and individual liberty. It argues that it is possible to distinguish between anti-consequentalism and rule-consequentalism, and that rule-consequentalism should be followed in such situations. Adherence of utilitarianism must not be understood as using the utilitarian principle for every decision in all walks of life. It is proposed that rule utilitarianism is compatible with legal rights.Less

Neuroscience, Free Will, and Responsibility

Deborah Talmi and Chris D. Frith

in Conscious Will and Responsibility: A Tribute to Benjamin Libet

This chapter reinterprets Libet's results in light of a distinction between Type 1 and Type 2 mental processing. It uses this framework to explain why we have a conscious experience of our own free ... More

This chapter reinterprets Libet's results in light of a distinction between Type 1 and Type 2 mental processing. It uses this framework to explain why we have a conscious experience of our own free will, and discusses potential moral consequences of seeing apparent free will as an illusion.Less

Behavioral Ethics

Herbert Gintis

in Creating Consilience: Integrating the Sciences and the Humanities

Philosophical views about morality have traditionally been supported by abstract reasoning and introspection, with, at best, passing reference to actual human behavior. Behavioral ethics develops ... More

Philosophical views about morality have traditionally been supported by abstract reasoning and introspection, with, at best, passing reference to actual human behavior. Behavioral ethics develops models of human morality based upon the fact that morality is an emergent property of the evolutionary dynamic that gave rise to our species. Propositions concerning moral behavior are framed and tested using the methods of game theory, using subjects from a variety of social backgrounds and cultures.Less

Why an Evolutionary Perspective is Critical to Understanding Moral Behavior in Humans

Sarah F. Brosnan

in Challenges to Moral and Religious Belief: Disagreement and Evolution

It is sometimes argued that moral behavior and concern for others set humans apart from other species. Yet other species share some of these behaviors. Studying them helps us to understand the ... More

It is sometimes argued that moral behavior and concern for others set humans apart from other species. Yet other species share some of these behaviors. Studying them helps us to understand the evolution of our own moral behavior, including when these characteristics may have emerged and the social and environmental variables which may have been critical in selecting for them. This large topic entails (at least) three components considered here: behaviors which contribute to social regularity, the mechanisms which relate to moral behavior (including moral emotions and empathy), and moral judgment. The chapter emphasizes that such studies need not demonstrate systems of morality or moral judgment that are the same as those of humans; instead the focus is on precursor behaviors that led to the evolution of our own system of morality, and thus help us to better understand human moral behavior.Less

Rhetoric, Reality, and Results: The Reagan Years at Home

Michael Schaller

in Reckoning with Reagan: America and Its President in the 1980s

This chapter examines the impact of U.S. President Ronald Reagan's administration of the local political and social condition. Reagan had an impact on American society and government that was both ... More

This chapter examines the impact of U.S. President Ronald Reagan's administration of the local political and social condition. Reagan had an impact on American society and government that was both less than he claimed and greater than his critics admitted. His administration policies resulted in the longest post-1945 period of economic growth, the restoration of traditional values in such varied spheres as private moral behavior and judicial decision making, the rebirth of national spirit and the reduction of the cost and scope of the government.Less

Democratic Religion Transformed

Gregory A. Wills

in Democratic Religion: Freedom, Authority, and Church Discipline in the Baptist South, 1785-1900

This chapter discusses the decline of Southern Baptist church discipline. By the 1920s, Southern Baptist church discipline had disappeared. Although a few isolated churches kept up the practice well ... More

This chapter discusses the decline of Southern Baptist church discipline. By the 1920s, Southern Baptist church discipline had disappeared. Although a few isolated churches kept up the practice well into the 1940s, the fate of Southern Baptist discipline had more-or-less been sealed by 1900. Southern Baptists transformed their heritage of communal authority and relinquished the right to judge the moral behavior of individuals. Democratic religion took on new meaning after this time.Less

The Holy Trinity: The State of the Questions

Gerald O'Collins

in The Trinity: An Interdisciplinary Symposium on the Trinity

Gerald O’Collins picks out and comments on twelve issues in current literature about the Trinity: the widespread desire to ‘rehabilitate’ the centrality of trinitarian faith; the biblical witness ... More

Gerald O’Collins picks out and comments on twelve issues in current literature about the Trinity: the widespread desire to ‘rehabilitate’ the centrality of trinitarian faith; the biblical witness that should make christology properly trinitarian; pneumatology as central to Pauline theology; the tripersonal God according to the Cappadocians and other patristic writers; debates on the procession of the Holy Spirit; current proposals for renaming the Trinity; the place of the Trinity in interreligious dialogue; trinitarian faith as the alternative to Western atheism and agnosticism; the identity of the economic and immanent Trinity; the irreducibly special elements in trinitarian actions; the viability of personal language for the Trinity; an integral approach (through study, worship, and practice) to the trinitarian mystery. Also recognizes further issues that call for attention: for instance, the distinct personal identity of the Holy Spirit, the significance for Christian faith of Jewish understanding of God, and the relevance of trinitarian faith for moral thinking and behaviour.Less

Shame, Legislation, and Subordination

Julien A. Deonna, Raffaele Rodogno, and Fabrice Teroni

in In Defense of Shame: The Faces of an Emotion

We consider the role of shame in explaining and/or justifying the regulation of certain practices by means of both legal and social pressure. We begin by focusing on the nature of the connection ... More

We consider the role of shame in explaining and/or justifying the regulation of certain practices by means of both legal and social pressure. We begin by focusing on the nature of the connection between shame, and legislation aimed at keeping certain social practices, such as marriage, out of the legal reach of sexually deviant minorities. We then examine the arguments for and against a role for shame in the public debate about issues concerning subordinated groups. We argue that many of the criticisms of shame and its role in the public domain miss their target. As part of a more positive defense of shame, we show that exhorting fellow citizens to moral or civic behavior through shame may, if cautiously done, be desirable.Less

The Knowledge of God as Father and Adoption as Sons

Peter Widdicombe

in The Fatherhood of God from Origen to Athanasius

This chapter discusses the relation between the Father and those adopted as sons. Origen thinks that although God is Father we can only come to know him as Father through our participation in the ... More

This chapter discusses the relation between the Father and those adopted as sons. Origen thinks that although God is Father we can only come to know him as Father through our participation in the Son. We come to know God as Father through a step-by-step progression to the status of adopted sons and thus to a share in the eternal relationship of the Father and the Son. Origen portrays this progression as a spiritual pilgrimage from the condition of fear, servitude, and ignorance that characterizes the Lord-servant relationship to that of filial knowledge and love that characterizes the Father–Son relationship. This pilgrimage involves a corresponding development in our moral behaviour: as we become morally pure, we grow in our knowledge of Wisdom and in our degree of sonship.Less

Mind attribution is for morality

Liane Young and Adam Waytz

in Understanding Other Minds: Perspectives from developmental social neuroscience

Mental state reasoning is crucial for moral evaluation and social interaction. In the first half of the paper, we discuss recent and ongoing work on mental state reasoning for moral evaluation – ... More

Mental state reasoning is crucial for moral evaluation and social interaction. In the first half of the paper, we discuss recent and ongoing work on mental state reasoning for moral evaluation – judging agents from a position “on high” as an observer or a judge. In the second half of the paper, we turn to moral cognition “on the ground” – mental state reasoning for social interaction. We discuss evidence indicating distinct behavioral and neural signatures of mental state reasoning for distinct motivational contexts – for interacting with ingroups versus outgroups, for cooperation versus competition, and for affiliation versus action prediction.Less

The Moral Dimension: Commonality and Particularity

Yaacov Shavit

in Athens in Jerusalem: Classical Antiquity and Hellenism in the Making of the Modern Secular Jew

This chapter emphasizes that it was the ethical (moral) basis of Judaism that was now seen as separating Jews from non-Jews. Moreover, it stresses that the Greek mirror played an important role in ... More

This chapter emphasizes that it was the ethical (moral) basis of Judaism that was now seen as separating Jews from non-Jews. Moreover, it stresses that the Greek mirror played an important role in shaping the image of Jewish morality. Greek morality (or better non-morality) was perceived as antinomical to Judaism; even when Jewish writers were ready to agree that Greek ethics did exist, they found them fundamentally different from (and inferior to) Jewish ethics. The chapter thus demonstrates that Greeks and Jews alike distinguished between themselves and other nations on a moral basis. Some Greek writers believed that Greek ethics was what separated the Hellenes from the barbarians. The dominant view in Jewish tradition was similar, and also stressed the deep chasm between the moral behaviour of Jews and that of Gentiles.Less

Character and Coherence: Testing the Stability of Naturalistically Observed Daily Moral Behavior

Matthias R. Mehl, Kathryn L. Bollich, John M. Doris, and Simine Vazire

in Character: New Directions from Philosophy, Psychology, and Theology

Chapter 29 engages with the person-situation debate in social psychology to shed light on the existence of moral character from a particular measurement perspective—namely, naturalistic observation. ... More

Chapter 29 engages with the person-situation debate in social psychology to shed light on the existence of moral character from a particular measurement perspective—namely, naturalistic observation. The chapter reports on studies that examined the stability of moral daily behaviors using the Electronically Activated Recorder (EAR), a digital audio-recorder that samples ambient sounds from participants’ daily lives. Across three studies, participants wore an EAR for one or two weekends. Positive (e.g., empathy, affection, gratitude) and negative (e.g., bragging, blaming, arrogance) moral behaviors were coded from the audio files. In empirical analyses, the coded moral behaviors evidenced substantial temporal stability. Moreover, the stability of moral behavior was comparable to the stability of neutral linguistic behaviors (e.g., the use of articles and prepositions). Together, these findings indicate that moral character can be naturalistically observed in daily life and is substantially stable across time.Less

A New Christianity for the People: German Sermons, Part 1

Kurt Flasch

in Meister Eckhart: Philosopher of Christianity

This chapter examines Meister Eckhart's German sermons, in which he reflects on a reform of Christianity, a new philosophy of nature, and ethics. It first considers Eckhart's views about the grounds ... More

This chapter examines Meister Eckhart's German sermons, in which he reflects on a reform of Christianity, a new philosophy of nature, and ethics. It first considers Eckhart's views about the grounds of reason and the good man before turning to his theory of sociality. It then discusses Eckhart's arguments regarding the egoistic constructs of moral behavior and the love for God, and specifically his claim that earlier Christian thinkers understood love incorrectly. It also explores a number of explanations for the time frame of Eckhart's German sermons and goes on to analyze the characteristic content of the sermons, including his interpretation of the Bible and his intention to show that one can know what faith says. Finally, it looks at Eckhart's philosophy of Christianity, his criticism of the theology of the time, his concept of God and the soul, and his thoughts on the primary determinations (Being, Oneness, Truth, Goodness).Less

Ethical Issues

Andrea L. Glenn and Adrian Raine

in Psychopathy: An Introduction to Biological Findings and Their Implications

This chapter examines whether brain impairment should be used in the determination of criminal responsibility. Most people feel comfortable with the idea that authority should not punish individuals ... More

This chapter examines whether brain impairment should be used in the determination of criminal responsibility. Most people feel comfortable with the idea that authority should not punish individuals with severe cognitive impairments. Opinions change, however, when arguments about brain deficits are applied to individuals who do not have obvious cognitive impairments. Psychopaths, for example, are aware of the differences between right and wrong. They act intentionally, with the understanding that there are rules and consequences for violating them. Overall, the chapter argues that the cognitive capacity for rationality is not all that is required for appropriate moral behavior.Less