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A fresh interpretation of ‘όξύς’ and ‘βαρύς’ underpins a new theory of the ancient Greek accent, applying W. Sidney Allen’s observation that there must have been in Greek a down-glide in pitch, cognate with the Vedic svarita, in addition to the rise whose vowel mora is marked by the received written system of signs devised by Aristophanes of Byzantium. The diachronic analysis is confirmed by Allen’s separate discovery of a pattern of stress in Greek, whose rules predict the same places of accentual prominence as the new theory; by modern synchronic descriptions of the Greek tonal phenomena; and by the fact that the contextual dominance of the svarita proposed for Greek also helps formulate a law that corresponds to the received rules for Latin prosody. Various loci antiqui, including disputed passages from Plato’s Timaeus, are seen in some cases to be inconsistent with received interpretations, but always consistent with the new theory.

This chapter examines the religious crisis in Michoacán, Mexico during the period from 1926 to 1929. It explains that Church-state hostilities in Michoacán intensified in 1926 when Bishop José Mora y del Río publicly reiterated the Church's opposition to constitutional provisions which prohibited the clergy from giving primary education, outlawed ecclesiastical property, and denied the Church of any judicial personality. It outlines the Church's official response to persecution during the cristero revolt and describes the experiences of persecution of Christians at the parish level.

This chapter deals primarily with breach of contract. Every contractual promise brings expectations to the promise. These expectations can be disappointed in various ways: the promisor may fail entirely to perform, he may offer performance at the wrong place, or his performance may turn out be unsatisfactory. In all these cases, the promisor has not complied with the duties imposed upon him by the contract, and thus, a breach of contract has occurred. The fragmented and unnecessarily intricate way of dealing with the problem of breach of contract has been severely criticized and it is widely regarded as one of the most unfortunate features of the German code.

The term “special segments” refers to the three moraic segments of Japanese, which constitute a rather unique feature of the language and have been granted special status in traditional Japanese analyses, namely the mora nasal /N/, the first part of an obstruent geminate /Q/ and the second part of a long vowel /R/. The chapter provides a description of their phonetic realisation, their historical development, and their general phonological properties in modern Japanese.

This chapter is devoted to the prosodic units of Japanese, the mora, the syllable, the foot, the prosodic word, and the prosodic hierarchy. It reviews the evidence demonstrating the central role played by the mora in Japanese phonology. It then proceeds to a re-examination of the status of the syllable, which has been argued in a number of recent works to be an indispensable prosodic unit, alongside the mora and the foot, although it has been absent from the work of most native Japanese phonologists who have always been content with the mora. Taking as a basis the author’s extensive research on the subject, this chapter argues that the syllable is not a relevant unit in the phonology of Japanese, and it shows how all the phenomena which have been inputed to the action of the syllable can be accounted for with exclusive reference to the mora and the foot.

The nineteenth century, celebrated as the glorious age of independence and the Reforma, handed over the National Palace to exuberant disciples of José María Luis Mora, a dyed-in-the-wool free trader, and the English ideologues Adam Smith and David Ricardo. Capitalists and free traders, more and more of them mestizos, sat at the helm of the ship of state. Their ascendancy set the stage for the thirty-year rule of Porfirio Díaz, an era of neocolonialism, Social Darwinism, and pomposity. The United States intervened officiously in Mexican affairs. The Liberal Party, the voice of capitalism and free trade, owes its life to Benito Juárez, who is associated with the Reforma and its aftermath. The Reforma was both an epic success and a colossal failure. It separated church and state, gave Mexico the trappings of a modern capitalist republic, and conferred political power on a largely mestizo class. All the same, the Reforma worsened the iniquitous distribution of wealth and income, and bestowed undeserved perks on mining moguls, merchants, and hacendados beholden to the export economy.

This chapter presents some issues of legislating zakat that have emerged in the aftermath of the Soeharto government in 1998. The enactment of Zakat Administration Law 38/1999 was as a result of contributions from both the MORA and the Forum Zakat (FOZ), although the former actually sought to dominate the enactment process. The promulgation of Law 38/1999 on the Management of Zakat was clear evidence that the institutionalization of zakat had reached the point where the permeation of Islamic doctrines in the structure of the secular state had begun to deepen considerably and perhaps even irreversibly. Yet the process of drafting that law, as this chapter shows, was not easy.

One of the central ways in which the long-standing debate between rationalists and empiricists surfaces in linguistics involves the putative existence of abstract phonological representations underlying seemingly more concrete surface forms. Linguists ranging from Panini to Chomsky and Halle have employed highly abstract representations, whereas the relatively recent rise of statistical and parallelist conceptions of language and cognition has led others to more surface-oriented views of phonology. In this chapter we review psycholinguistic and phonological evidence on both sides of the abstractness question in the domain of prosodic structure, with a focus on Abkhaz stress assignment and the representation of lexical prosody in Optimality Theory. We conclude that the weight of the evidence supports the existence of abstract underlying prosodic structure, even when it is predictable.

One new constraint family argued for in this book are constraints ensuring a ‘morph-contiguous’ projection of prosodic nodes. It is argued that the phonological representation of a morpheme strives to be contiguous across different tiers, i.e. phonological elements affiliated with one morpheme avoid being dominated by a phonological element that is affiliated with another morpheme. It is shown how different patterns of phonologically predictable allomorphy involving MLM follow from such a preference. This constraint type also allows the solution of a general opacity problem that OT-accounts assuming floating prosodic nodes face. The relevant constraint demanding morph-contiguous mora licensing ensures that an epenthetic mora is inserted in contexts where a vowel would otherwise only be dominated by a mora with a different morphological affiliation. This constraint predicts an interesting typology of languages where all or only some vowels undergo morphological lengthening. As is shown with several examples, this typology is indeed borne out.

After establishing the discursive context from which elegy’s emphasis on youthful defiance and prolonged involvement with a courtesan-puella emerged, chapter three demonstrates how Propertius adapts and modifies a pose of resistance to teleological progress in his first book of elegies, the Monobiblos. This chapter discusses the temporal norms and proprieties implied through the Monobiblos’ various addressees and poetic personae, who pose as foils for the developmentally challenged amator. In particular, Tullus of poems 1.1 and 1.6, who is situated at the initial phase of his own cursus honorum (“course of offices”), functions primarily to offset the temporal deviance of the amator, who is represented as incapacitated by tardus amor (“slow love”) and the mora (“delay”) experienced in the arms of his puella, Cynthia.

This chapter looks at how a number of religious figures negotiated the relationship between politics and religion in nineteenth-century Spain. It focuses on the role played by four representatives of the Catholic clergy who, for various reasons, attempted to make Christianity compatible with liberalism by devising alternatives to the Church’s official opposition to budding forms of political freedom. They were Joaquín Lorenzo Villanueva; Antonio de Aguayo; Fernando Castro y Pajares and José García Mora. Villanueva became a key figure in the Valencian group in the Cortes of Cadiz, where he made crucial contributions to parliamentary debates relating to religious and ecclesiastical issues. Castro’s primary objective was to advocate the introduction of religious tolerance into Spanish legislation. Castro accordingly criticized the Moderate government for upholding religious intolerance and depriving Spain of the beneficial effects derived from religious freedom.

This chapter describes the debate surrounding the interrogation of terrorist suspects after 9/11. President Obama rejected the use of so-called enhanced interrogation techniques (EITs) on liberal and realist grounds. For him, the use of EITs was neither necessary nor effective. In fact they were, from his perspective, counterproductive to the extent they acted as ‘a recruitment tool’ for America’s enemies. By describing former Vice-President Dick Cheney’s immediate response to this argument the chapter illustrates how such questions continued to be debated in public discourse. Common ground existed to the extent that both sides agreed that further scrutiny of the post-9/11 interrogation programme was unnecessary, a view that disappointed human rights groups who argued for full-scale investigations.

This chapter discusses the letters of two nuns to their Jesuit confessor, Antonio Márquez. In understanding their anguished struggles to submit to a regimen of Ignatian spirituality, we revisit earlier discussions of spiritual obedience, and I offer a critique of scholarship on women’s writing and female agency in Latin American historiography that has overlooked the dynamics of spiritual obedience that entailed an articulation of “self” as or through the desire to submit to a spiritual director. I move from the nuns’ spiritual discourse of the heart to show how the Exercises encouraged a heart-centered mobility that left a distinctive iconographic trail in its wake—the image of an anatomically correct carnal heart. The convergence of natural philosophy and spiritual practice grew out of the Jesuit Spiritual Exercises, which prompted the practitioner to contemplate God’s works in the natural world and take action in that world.

As Michael Komanecky reveals in Chapter 12, Serra’s notoriety was embodied and spread through a proliferation of largely laudatory images. Public representations of Serra and Spanish culture abounded after the late 19^th century with the most notable examples being Bierstadt’s monumental landscape of the Spanish landing in Monterey that now hangs in the grand stairwell of the East Front of the Capital, McGroarty’s “Mission Play” that played before millions in San Gabriel, and the monumental statue of Serra placed in the U.S. Statuary Hall in 1931.

Swedish has mandatory stress to weight, i.e. a requirement on stressed syllables to be heavy. This is a difference with respect to English. This prosodic constraint is met by segmentals in two basic ways, by placing two moras on a vowel, or by placing one on the vowel and onte on the following consonant. Some consonants are underlyingly specified for a mora, while vowel length is predictable. The chapter reviews the discussion and arguments for underlying vowel length as well as for underlying consonant length. The phonological behaviour of vowels under different conditions, such as consonant suffixation is also covered.

This chapter explores the typology of stress systems, including weight-insensitive and weight-sensitive (quantity-sensitive) stress. Typological asymmetries in the location of stress and the directionality of stress assignment are identified. The discussion of weight-sensitive stress includes a survey of syllable weight and phonological representations of weight (moraic theory). Foot-based and grid-based theories of stress and the notion of extramericality are introduced. Various phonetic motivations for biases in the location of stress and the distribution of weight criteria are discussed. The relationship between the location of primary stress and both the directionality of stress assignment and the location of affixes relative to the root is assessed through cross-linguistic surveys. Other factors relevant to stress systems are considered including tone and morphology.

The rhythmic theory developed by al-Fārābī remains relevant to the analysis of sung poetry in the contemporary Middle East, not least with respect to the question of how duration comes to be determined and the conception of verse as a constituent of melody (Arabic laḥn) in the fullest sense. This chapter reviews some of Fārābī’s concepts in relation to Christopher Hasty’s discussion of projective potential. Analysis of eight examples of sung verse in Persian and Khorasani Turkish focuses on coordination of tunes with rhythmic cycles associated with different types of poetic meter. I argue that the best analytical work on Persian traditional music, notably that of Dariush Talā’i, provides an excellent foundation for studies of Iran’s regional musics.

In this chapter, the theoretical background for the theory of PDM is presented. PDM is based on the simple insight that if all possible Prosodically Defective Morpheme representations and their potential effects on the phonological structure are taken into account, instances of length-manipulating non-concatenative morphology and length-manipulating morpheme-specific phonology are predicted. The chapter presents the concrete theoretical background assumptions for the proposed theory of PDM: It is an optimality-theoretic system based on containment for phonological primitives and association lines. New theoretical assumptions are made about the linearization of morphemes that in particular implement a severe restriction on the ordering possibilities of morphemic prosodic nodes. This theory correctly predicts that MLM operations can only affect a restricted set of base positions. As an independent argument for containment theory, the issue of opacity problems in the domain of MLM and the solution containment offers are discussed.

It is shown how the theory of PDM accounts for instances of subtractive MLM—the empirical phenomenon that is notoriously challenging for the claim that morphology is additive. Two general mechanisms inside PDM can predict subtractive MLM: usurpation of moras and the defective integration of morphemic prosodic nodes. Usurpation can arise if a segment underlyingly lacks a mora and ‘usurps’ it from a neighbouring segment that is hence deprived of it. In the second scenario, a prosodic node that is underlyingly not integrated into the higher/lower prosodic structure is affixed to a base and remains defectively integrated in the output. Given the standard assumption that only elements properly integrated under the highest prosodic node of the prosodic hierarchy are visible for the phonetics, this affix node and everything it dominates remain phonetically uninterpreted. It is shown how all attested types of subtractive MLM in the representative data set fall out from these two basic mechanisms.