François Recanati
- Published in print:
- 2010
- Published Online:
- January 2011
- ISBN:
- 9780199226993
- eISBN:
- 9780191710223
- Item type:
- book
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199226993.001.0001
- Subject:
- Philosophy, Philosophy of Language, General
This book argues against the traditional understanding of the semantics/pragmatics divide and puts forward a radical alternative. Through half a dozen case studies, it shows that what an utterance ...
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This book argues against the traditional understanding of the semantics/pragmatics divide and puts forward a radical alternative. Through half a dozen case studies, it shows that what an utterance says cannot be neatly separated from what the speaker means. In particular, the speaker's meaning endows words with senses that are tailored to the situation of utterance and depart from the conventional meanings carried by the words in isolation. This phenomenon of ‘pragmatic modulation’ must be taken into account in theorizing about semantic content, for it interacts with the grammar-driven process of semantic composition. Because of that interaction, the book argues, the content of a sentence always depends upon the context in which it is used. This claim defines Contextualism, a view which has attracted considerable attention in recent years, and of which the author of this book is one of the main proponents.Less
This book argues against the traditional understanding of the semantics/pragmatics divide and puts forward a radical alternative. Through half a dozen case studies, it shows that what an utterance says cannot be neatly separated from what the speaker means. In particular, the speaker's meaning endows words with senses that are tailored to the situation of utterance and depart from the conventional meanings carried by the words in isolation. This phenomenon of ‘pragmatic modulation’ must be taken into account in theorizing about semantic content, for it interacts with the grammar-driven process of semantic composition. Because of that interaction, the book argues, the content of a sentence always depends upon the context in which it is used. This claim defines Contextualism, a view which has attracted considerable attention in recent years, and of which the author of this book is one of the main proponents.
Sander Van Smaalen
- Published in print:
- 2007
- Published Online:
- January 2008
- ISBN:
- 9780198570820
- eISBN:
- 9780191718762
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780198570820.003.0001
- Subject:
- Physics, Crystallography
This chapter gives an introduction to the distinctive structural features of aperiodic crystals, including incommensurately modulated crystals, composite crystals, and quasicrystals. Atomic ...
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This chapter gives an introduction to the distinctive structural features of aperiodic crystals, including incommensurately modulated crystals, composite crystals, and quasicrystals. Atomic structures are discussed in relation to the structures of periodic crystals, while it is shown that translational symmetry is lost. Diffraction by incommensurately modulated structures is shown to give rise to Bragg reflections that can be indexed by four or more integers. The modulation wave vector is introduced as the vector defining the periodicity of the modulation functions, as well as being the reciprocal vector employed in the indexing of Bragg reflections.Less
This chapter gives an introduction to the distinctive structural features of aperiodic crystals, including incommensurately modulated crystals, composite crystals, and quasicrystals. Atomic structures are discussed in relation to the structures of periodic crystals, while it is shown that translational symmetry is lost. Diffraction by incommensurately modulated structures is shown to give rise to Bragg reflections that can be indexed by four or more integers. The modulation wave vector is introduced as the vector defining the periodicity of the modulation functions, as well as being the reciprocal vector employed in the indexing of Bragg reflections.
Sander Van Smaalen
- Published in print:
- 2007
- Published Online:
- January 2008
- ISBN:
- 9780198570820
- eISBN:
- 9780191718762
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780198570820.003.0010
- Subject:
- Physics, Crystallography
This chapter provides an overview of the methods of structure solution of incommensurately modulated crystals and composite crystals. Assuming the periodic average structure is known, it is shown ...
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This chapter provides an overview of the methods of structure solution of incommensurately modulated crystals and composite crystals. Assuming the periodic average structure is known, it is shown that modulation functions can often be determined by trial and error, employing structure refinements starting with randomly chosen but small values for the structural parameters. The presentation of systematic methods of structure determination includes Patterson function methods, direct methods, and the method of charge flipping.Less
This chapter provides an overview of the methods of structure solution of incommensurately modulated crystals and composite crystals. Assuming the periodic average structure is known, it is shown that modulation functions can often be determined by trial and error, employing structure refinements starting with randomly chosen but small values for the structural parameters. The presentation of systematic methods of structure determination includes Patterson function methods, direct methods, and the method of charge flipping.
Sander Van Smaalen
- Published in print:
- 2007
- Published Online:
- January 2008
- ISBN:
- 9780198570820
- eISBN:
- 9780191718762
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780198570820.003.0008
- Subject:
- Physics, Crystallography
This chapter considers the properties of the generalized electron density as it can be displayed in superspace. Fourier maps and difference Fourier maps allow the visual inspection of various ...
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This chapter considers the properties of the generalized electron density as it can be displayed in superspace. Fourier maps and difference Fourier maps allow the visual inspection of various structural features, including the positions of the atoms, the shapes and amplitudes of modulation functions, and possible advanced properties of the modulations, like modulation of the anisotropic displacement parameters (ADPs) and the presence anharmonic displacements. The maximum entropy method (MEM) is introduced as a model-independent method that provides a more accurate picture of the electron density than is provided by Fourier maps. The MEM can be used to determine the precise shapes of modulation functions and to study the electron density in the chemical bond.Less
This chapter considers the properties of the generalized electron density as it can be displayed in superspace. Fourier maps and difference Fourier maps allow the visual inspection of various structural features, including the positions of the atoms, the shapes and amplitudes of modulation functions, and possible advanced properties of the modulations, like modulation of the anisotropic displacement parameters (ADPs) and the presence anharmonic displacements. The maximum entropy method (MEM) is introduced as a model-independent method that provides a more accurate picture of the electron density than is provided by Fourier maps. The MEM can be used to determine the precise shapes of modulation functions and to study the electron density in the chemical bond.
Walter van de Leur
- Published in print:
- 2002
- Published Online:
- September 2008
- ISBN:
- 9780195124484
- eISBN:
- 9780199868711
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195124484.003.0009
- Subject:
- Music, History, Western
This chapter plots the development in Strayhorn’s later arranging and composing. By the mid-1950s, Strayhorn had expanded his music writing with numerous individual elements into a mature and ...
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This chapter plots the development in Strayhorn’s later arranging and composing. By the mid-1950s, Strayhorn had expanded his music writing with numerous individual elements into a mature and distinctive style that showed an increased complexity on all levels, while at the same time it had an unsurpassed emotional quality. The chapter looks at the most important components in his later-year composing, including chromaticism, melodic cells, classical construction, angular lines, static harmony, harmonic ambiguity, complex modulations, widened tonality, linear and through-composed forms, multiple-thematic writing, complex through-imitation, clusters, layering of chords, and rhythmic gestures. Examples are drawn from Cashmere Cutie, Pretty Girl, U.M.M.G., Ballad for Very Tired and Very Sad Lotus Eaters, Up and Down, Orson, Day Dream, and Take the “A” Train (1956).Less
This chapter plots the development in Strayhorn’s later arranging and composing. By the mid-1950s, Strayhorn had expanded his music writing with numerous individual elements into a mature and distinctive style that showed an increased complexity on all levels, while at the same time it had an unsurpassed emotional quality. The chapter looks at the most important components in his later-year composing, including chromaticism, melodic cells, classical construction, angular lines, static harmony, harmonic ambiguity, complex modulations, widened tonality, linear and through-composed forms, multiple-thematic writing, complex through-imitation, clusters, layering of chords, and rhythmic gestures. Examples are drawn from Cashmere Cutie, Pretty Girl, U.M.M.G., Ballad for Very Tired and Very Sad Lotus Eaters, Up and Down, Orson, Day Dream, and Take the “A” Train (1956).
C. Julian Chen
- Published in print:
- 2007
- Published Online:
- September 2007
- ISBN:
- 9780199211500
- eISBN:
- 9780191705991
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199211500.003.0015
- Subject:
- Physics, Condensed Matter Physics / Materials
This chapter discusses atomic force microscopy (AFM), focusing on the methods for atomic force detection. Although the force detection always requires a cantilever, there are two types of modes: the ...
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This chapter discusses atomic force microscopy (AFM), focusing on the methods for atomic force detection. Although the force detection always requires a cantilever, there are two types of modes: the static mode and the dynamic mode. The general design and the typical method of manufacturing of the cantilevers are discussed. Two popular methods of static force detection are presented. The popular dynamic-force detection method, the tapping mode is described, especially the methods in liquids. The non-contact AFM, which has achieved atomic resolution in the weak attractive force regime, is discussed in detail. An elementary and transparent analysis of the principles, including the frequency shift, the second harmonics, and the average tunneling current, is presented. It requires only Newton's equation and Fourier analysis, and the final results are analyzed over the entire range of vibrational amplitude. The implementation is briefly discussed.Less
This chapter discusses atomic force microscopy (AFM), focusing on the methods for atomic force detection. Although the force detection always requires a cantilever, there are two types of modes: the static mode and the dynamic mode. The general design and the typical method of manufacturing of the cantilevers are discussed. Two popular methods of static force detection are presented. The popular dynamic-force detection method, the tapping mode is described, especially the methods in liquids. The non-contact AFM, which has achieved atomic resolution in the weak attractive force regime, is discussed in detail. An elementary and transparent analysis of the principles, including the frequency shift, the second harmonics, and the average tunneling current, is presented. It requires only Newton's equation and Fourier analysis, and the final results are analyzed over the entire range of vibrational amplitude. The implementation is briefly discussed.
Mark Tatham and Katherine Morton
- Published in print:
- 2003
- Published Online:
- September 2007
- ISBN:
- 9780199250677
- eISBN:
- 9780191719462
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199250677.003.0011
- Subject:
- Linguistics, Phonetics / Phonology
This chapter introduces some aspects of linguistics that may be helpful in labelling emotive content of speech. The following questions are asked: Are speech and emotion separate events or does ...
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This chapter introduces some aspects of linguistics that may be helpful in labelling emotive content of speech. The following questions are asked: Are speech and emotion separate events or does speech occur within the context of emotion? Is a uniqueness hypothesis more useful than a modulation hypothesis? How context sensitive is expressive content? What might be the function of prosodic patterns in triggering perception of expressive and emotive content? What are some acoustic correlates of speech production and perception? Can linguistics and phonetics theory and models provide useful descriptive labels for characterizing expression in speech?Less
This chapter introduces some aspects of linguistics that may be helpful in labelling emotive content of speech. The following questions are asked: Are speech and emotion separate events or does speech occur within the context of emotion? Is a uniqueness hypothesis more useful than a modulation hypothesis? How context sensitive is expressive content? What might be the function of prosodic patterns in triggering perception of expressive and emotive content? What are some acoustic correlates of speech production and perception? Can linguistics and phonetics theory and models provide useful descriptive labels for characterizing expression in speech?
Daniel Durstewitz
- Published in print:
- 2009
- Published Online:
- February 2010
- ISBN:
- 9780195373035
- eISBN:
- 9780199865543
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195373035.003.0018
- Subject:
- Neuroscience, Molecular and Cellular Systems, History of Neuroscience
Current computational models of dopamine (DA) modulation have worked either from a more abstract neuroalgorithmic level, starting with specific assumptions about DA's computational role and then ...
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Current computational models of dopamine (DA) modulation have worked either from a more abstract neuroalgorithmic level, starting with specific assumptions about DA's computational role and then working out its implications at a higher cognitive level, or have used a more biophysical/physiological implementation to unravel the dynamic and functional consequences of DA's effects on voltage-gated and synaptic ion channels. This chapter focuses on the latter, and in addition will specifically review models of DA-innervated target regions rather than models of ventral tegmental area/substantia nigra (VTA/SN) DA neurons themselves. It begins with a brief discussion of how DA may change the input/output functions of single striatal and cortical neuron. It considers the network level and the potential computational role of DA in higher cognitive functions, and then reviews DA-based models of reinforcement learning.Less
Current computational models of dopamine (DA) modulation have worked either from a more abstract neuroalgorithmic level, starting with specific assumptions about DA's computational role and then working out its implications at a higher cognitive level, or have used a more biophysical/physiological implementation to unravel the dynamic and functional consequences of DA's effects on voltage-gated and synaptic ion channels. This chapter focuses on the latter, and in addition will specifically review models of DA-innervated target regions rather than models of ventral tegmental area/substantia nigra (VTA/SN) DA neurons themselves. It begins with a brief discussion of how DA may change the input/output functions of single striatal and cortical neuron. It considers the network level and the potential computational role of DA in higher cognitive functions, and then reviews DA-based models of reinforcement learning.
Murray Campbell, Clive Greated, and Arnold Myers
- Published in print:
- 2004
- Published Online:
- May 2008
- ISBN:
- 9780198165040
- eISBN:
- 9780191713675
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780198165040.003.0013
- Subject:
- Music, History, Western
This chapter begins with a section on microphones, pickups, amplifiers, special effects units, and loudspeakers. This is followed by an outline of historic developments in electroacoustic ...
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This chapter begins with a section on microphones, pickups, amplifiers, special effects units, and loudspeakers. This is followed by an outline of historic developments in electroacoustic instruments, such as the electric guitar; electromechanical instruments, such as the Hammond organ; up to the more recent developments in electronic instruments. The basic principles of classical synthesis techniques are explained, including additive, subtractive, frequency modulation, and granular synthesis. Examples of early keyboard synthesizers that used these techniques are given, for example, the Korg and Moog subtractive synthesizers and Yamaha DX7 frequency modulation synthesizer. Devices for controlling electronic instruments are examined, including the use of midi and ways in which computers can be used. Avant-garde techniques discussed include stochastic methods, such as those used by John Cage.Less
This chapter begins with a section on microphones, pickups, amplifiers, special effects units, and loudspeakers. This is followed by an outline of historic developments in electroacoustic instruments, such as the electric guitar; electromechanical instruments, such as the Hammond organ; up to the more recent developments in electronic instruments. The basic principles of classical synthesis techniques are explained, including additive, subtractive, frequency modulation, and granular synthesis. Examples of early keyboard synthesizers that used these techniques are given, for example, the Korg and Moog subtractive synthesizers and Yamaha DX7 frequency modulation synthesizer. Devices for controlling electronic instruments are examined, including the use of midi and ways in which computers can be used. Avant-garde techniques discussed include stochastic methods, such as those used by John Cage.
Eran Magen and James J. Gross
- Published in print:
- 2010
- Published Online:
- May 2010
- ISBN:
- 9780195391381
- eISBN:
- 9780199776894
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195391381.003.0018
- Subject:
- Psychology, Cognitive Neuroscience, Social Psychology
Research on self-control has enjoyed tremendous growth over the past few decades, as researchers from a variety of disciplines have tested different self-control techniques in different domains of ...
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Research on self-control has enjoyed tremendous growth over the past few decades, as researchers from a variety of disciplines have tested different self-control techniques in different domains of self-control. The result has been a proliferation of theories, models, and approaches, each offering important, but so far largely unrelated insights. The lack of a unifying framework has been an impediment to the development of an incremental science of self-control, and has left researchers struggling to relate their work to that of others. In this chapter, we present a general model of self-control, which we call the cybernetic process model of self-control. This model integrates two existing models — Cybernetic control theory (Carver & Scheier, 1982) and the process model of emotion-regulation (Gross, 1998b) — and describes the process through which tempting impulses arise and may be regulated. The cybernetic process model of self-control provides a conceptual framework for organizing disparate findings from research on self-control, and serves as a useful aid in selecting and designing appropriate self-control techniques.Less
Research on self-control has enjoyed tremendous growth over the past few decades, as researchers from a variety of disciplines have tested different self-control techniques in different domains of self-control. The result has been a proliferation of theories, models, and approaches, each offering important, but so far largely unrelated insights. The lack of a unifying framework has been an impediment to the development of an incremental science of self-control, and has left researchers struggling to relate their work to that of others. In this chapter, we present a general model of self-control, which we call the cybernetic process model of self-control. This model integrates two existing models — Cybernetic control theory (Carver & Scheier, 1982) and the process model of emotion-regulation (Gross, 1998b) — and describes the process through which tempting impulses arise and may be regulated. The cybernetic process model of self-control provides a conceptual framework for organizing disparate findings from research on self-control, and serves as a useful aid in selecting and designing appropriate self-control techniques.
Joscha Bach
- Published in print:
- 2009
- Published Online:
- May 2009
- ISBN:
- 9780195370676
- eISBN:
- 9780199870721
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195370676.003.0004
- Subject:
- Psychology, Cognitive Models and Architectures
This chapter discusses the motivational control of behaviors and Dörner's modulation theory of emotion. Topics covered include appetence and aversion, motivation, motive selection, intentions, ...
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This chapter discusses the motivational control of behaviors and Dörner's modulation theory of emotion. Topics covered include appetence and aversion, motivation, motive selection, intentions, action, modulators, and emotion.Less
This chapter discusses the motivational control of behaviors and Dörner's modulation theory of emotion. Topics covered include appetence and aversion, motivation, motive selection, intentions, action, modulators, and emotion.
L F. Abbott
- Published in print:
- 2006
- Published Online:
- May 2009
- ISBN:
- 9780195148220
- eISBN:
- 9780199864676
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195148220.003.0021
- Subject:
- Neuroscience, Behavioral Neuroscience, Molecular and Cellular Systems
Self-regulated switching is vital to the operation of complex machines such as computers. The essential building block of a computer is a voltage-gated switch, the transistor, that is turned off and ...
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Self-regulated switching is vital to the operation of complex machines such as computers. The essential building block of a computer is a voltage-gated switch, the transistor, that is turned off and on by the same sorts of currents that it controls. By analogy, this calls attention to neural pathways that not only carry the action potentials that arise from neural activity, but are switched off and on by neural activity as well. This chapter discusses three biophysical mechanisms—neuromodulation, inhibition, and gain modulation—and assess the merits and short-comings of each of them.Less
Self-regulated switching is vital to the operation of complex machines such as computers. The essential building block of a computer is a voltage-gated switch, the transistor, that is turned off and on by the same sorts of currents that it controls. By analogy, this calls attention to neural pathways that not only carry the action potentials that arise from neural activity, but are switched off and on by neural activity as well. This chapter discusses three biophysical mechanisms—neuromodulation, inhibition, and gain modulation—and assess the merits and short-comings of each of them.
Eric A. Newman
- Published in print:
- 2004
- Published Online:
- May 2009
- ISBN:
- 9780195152227
- eISBN:
- 9780199865024
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195152227.003.0028
- Subject:
- Neuroscience, Development, Disorders of the Nervous System
This chapter reviews recent evidence defining glial-neuronal interactions at the tripartite synapse. Topics covered include structure of the tripartite synapse, neuronal activation of glial cells, ...
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This chapter reviews recent evidence defining glial-neuronal interactions at the tripartite synapse. Topics covered include structure of the tripartite synapse, neuronal activation of glial cells, glial modulation of synaptic transmission, and indirect mechanisms of glial modulation of synaptic transmission.Less
This chapter reviews recent evidence defining glial-neuronal interactions at the tripartite synapse. Topics covered include structure of the tripartite synapse, neuronal activation of glial cells, glial modulation of synaptic transmission, and indirect mechanisms of glial modulation of synaptic transmission.
Arlindo Cunha and Alan Swinbank
- Published in print:
- 2011
- Published Online:
- May 2011
- ISBN:
- 9780199591572
- eISBN:
- 9780191725579
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199591572.003.0007
- Subject:
- Political Science, European Union, International Relations and Politics
The 2003 reform is generally considered to have been the most radical in the history of the CAP, in that it largely decoupled farm income support from production with the introduction of the Single ...
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The 2003 reform is generally considered to have been the most radical in the history of the CAP, in that it largely decoupled farm income support from production with the introduction of the Single Payment Scheme. There was some strengthening of the second pillar (rural development) as a result of modulation diverting budget funds from direct income support. Decoupling strengthened the EU's negotiating hand in the ongoing Doha Round of WTO negotiations, but these failed to achieve a breakthrough in Cancún. As in chapters 5 and 6, this chapter outlines the economic and social context, and assesses the factors that motivated the reform proposals and influenced and determined its final outcome.Less
The 2003 reform is generally considered to have been the most radical in the history of the CAP, in that it largely decoupled farm income support from production with the introduction of the Single Payment Scheme. There was some strengthening of the second pillar (rural development) as a result of modulation diverting budget funds from direct income support. Decoupling strengthened the EU's negotiating hand in the ongoing Doha Round of WTO negotiations, but these failed to achieve a breakthrough in Cancún. As in chapters 5 and 6, this chapter outlines the economic and social context, and assesses the factors that motivated the reform proposals and influenced and determined its final outcome.
Morris Richard
- Published in print:
- 2006
- Published Online:
- May 2009
- ISBN:
- 9780195100273
- eISBN:
- 9780199864133
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195100273.003.0015
- Subject:
- Neuroscience, Molecular and Cellular Systems, Behavioral Neuroscience
This chapter focuses on the role of the hippocampal formation and other “higher” structures, such as the amygdala and prefrontal cortex, in the negative feedback regulation of the ...
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This chapter focuses on the role of the hippocampal formation and other “higher” structures, such as the amygdala and prefrontal cortex, in the negative feedback regulation of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis—the major system involved in orchestrating the body's reactions to both acute and chronic stress. It considers findings relevant to the stress-hippocampus link beginning with a model of HPA axis regulation. It then turns to allostatic modulation of hippocampal processing and, next, to the problems that arise with allostatic load. This is followed by discussion of the interaction between the hippocampus and other brain structures in regulating stress and, finally, the mechanistic issue of how the hippocampus orchestrates certain cognitive sequelae of arousing aversive experiences.Less
This chapter focuses on the role of the hippocampal formation and other “higher” structures, such as the amygdala and prefrontal cortex, in the negative feedback regulation of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis—the major system involved in orchestrating the body's reactions to both acute and chronic stress. It considers findings relevant to the stress-hippocampus link beginning with a model of HPA axis regulation. It then turns to allostatic modulation of hippocampal processing and, next, to the problems that arise with allostatic load. This is followed by discussion of the interaction between the hippocampus and other brain structures in regulating stress and, finally, the mechanistic issue of how the hippocampus orchestrates certain cognitive sequelae of arousing aversive experiences.
Tim Shallice
- Published in print:
- 2002
- Published Online:
- May 2009
- ISBN:
- 9780195134971
- eISBN:
- 9780199864157
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195134971.003.0017
- Subject:
- Neuroscience, Behavioral Neuroscience, Molecular and Cellular Systems
This chapter focuses on two supervisory processes: the top-down modulation of lower-level schemas and checking or monitoring processes. It argues that there are processes that come into play ...
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This chapter focuses on two supervisory processes: the top-down modulation of lower-level schemas and checking or monitoring processes. It argues that there are processes that come into play specifically in nonroutine situations. This is the position initially adopted in Norman and Shallice. From an expert system AI perspective (the domino model), one would expect there to be a set of subprocesses that are computationally very different and have different specific roles but which also combine in coping with nonroutine situations. This is the approach taken earlier from a cognitive neuroscience perspective by the Mark II Supervisory System model. These subprocesses are localized in different parts of the prefrontal cortex.Less
This chapter focuses on two supervisory processes: the top-down modulation of lower-level schemas and checking or monitoring processes. It argues that there are processes that come into play specifically in nonroutine situations. This is the position initially adopted in Norman and Shallice. From an expert system AI perspective (the domino model), one would expect there to be a set of subprocesses that are computationally very different and have different specific roles but which also combine in coping with nonroutine situations. This is the approach taken earlier from a cognitive neuroscience perspective by the Mark II Supervisory System model. These subprocesses are localized in different parts of the prefrontal cortex.
François Recanati
- Published in print:
- 2010
- Published Online:
- January 2011
- ISBN:
- 9780199226993
- eISBN:
- 9780191710223
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199226993.003.0001
- Subject:
- Philosophy, Philosophy of Language, General
Truth-Conditional Pragmatics, the theoretical framework advertised and illustrated in this book, stands in contrast to (what used to be) the traditional way of looking at the semantics/pragmatics ...
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Truth-Conditional Pragmatics, the theoretical framework advertised and illustrated in this book, stands in contrast to (what used to be) the traditional way of looking at the semantics/pragmatics distinction. This introductory chapter spells out the contrast by discussing a number of issues. Firstly, the modularity issue (is semantic competence sufficient to assign truth-conditions to arbitrary sentences of one's language, or is pragmatic competence also needed?). Secondly, the extent of context-sensitivity issue (is context-sensitivity pervasive in natural language, or it is a rather restricted phenomenon? Are all/most expressions similar to indexicals?). Thirdly, the pragmatic modulation issue (is the semantic contribution of expressions calibrated through the operation of ‘free’ pragmatic processes like metonymy, narrowing or sense-extension?).Less
Truth-Conditional Pragmatics, the theoretical framework advertised and illustrated in this book, stands in contrast to (what used to be) the traditional way of looking at the semantics/pragmatics distinction. This introductory chapter spells out the contrast by discussing a number of issues. Firstly, the modularity issue (is semantic competence sufficient to assign truth-conditions to arbitrary sentences of one's language, or is pragmatic competence also needed?). Secondly, the extent of context-sensitivity issue (is context-sensitivity pervasive in natural language, or it is a rather restricted phenomenon? Are all/most expressions similar to indexicals?). Thirdly, the pragmatic modulation issue (is the semantic contribution of expressions calibrated through the operation of ‘free’ pragmatic processes like metonymy, narrowing or sense-extension?).
François Recanati
- Published in print:
- 2010
- Published Online:
- January 2011
- ISBN:
- 9780199226993
- eISBN:
- 9780191710223
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199226993.003.0002
- Subject:
- Philosophy, Philosophy of Language, General
It has often been observed that the meaning of a word may be affected by the other words which occur in the same sentence. How are we to account for this phenomenon of ‘semantic flexibility’? This ...
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It has often been observed that the meaning of a word may be affected by the other words which occur in the same sentence. How are we to account for this phenomenon of ‘semantic flexibility’? This chapter argues that semantic flexibility reduces to context-sensitivity and does not raise unsurmountable problems for standard compositional accounts. On the other hand, it would be a mistake to assume too simple a view of context-sensitivity. Two basic forms of context-sensitivity are distinguished. The second form — sense modulation — shows that there is more in the meaning of the whole than can be derived from the meanings of the parts.Less
It has often been observed that the meaning of a word may be affected by the other words which occur in the same sentence. How are we to account for this phenomenon of ‘semantic flexibility’? This chapter argues that semantic flexibility reduces to context-sensitivity and does not raise unsurmountable problems for standard compositional accounts. On the other hand, it would be a mistake to assume too simple a view of context-sensitivity. Two basic forms of context-sensitivity are distinguished. The second form — sense modulation — shows that there is more in the meaning of the whole than can be derived from the meanings of the parts.
François Recanati
- Published in print:
- 2010
- Published Online:
- January 2011
- ISBN:
- 9780199226993
- eISBN:
- 9780191710223
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199226993.003.0003
- Subject:
- Philosophy, Philosophy of Language, General
Some adjectives are said to be relative, that is, dependent for their interpretation upon the noun they modify, and others not. Likewise, some adjectives are said to be intersective, and others (e.g. ...
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Some adjectives are said to be relative, that is, dependent for their interpretation upon the noun they modify, and others not. Likewise, some adjectives are said to be intersective, and others (e.g. relative and privative adjectives) not. This chapter argues that in both cases the contrast is ill-founded. All adjectives, insofar as they can go in predicative position, are intersective, and they are all relative. The apparent lack of intersectivity of certain (predicative) adjectives is shown to be an illusion due to contextual variations in sense, some of which are traceable to ‘saturation’ and others to ‘modulation’ (two kinds of contextual processes at work in the interpretation of linguistic forms). Special attention is given to colour adjectives and to gradable adjectives.Less
Some adjectives are said to be relative, that is, dependent for their interpretation upon the noun they modify, and others not. Likewise, some adjectives are said to be intersective, and others (e.g. relative and privative adjectives) not. This chapter argues that in both cases the contrast is ill-founded. All adjectives, insofar as they can go in predicative position, are intersective, and they are all relative. The apparent lack of intersectivity of certain (predicative) adjectives is shown to be an illusion due to contextual variations in sense, some of which are traceable to ‘saturation’ and others to ‘modulation’ (two kinds of contextual processes at work in the interpretation of linguistic forms). Special attention is given to colour adjectives and to gradable adjectives.
Sander Van Smaalen
- Published in print:
- 2007
- Published Online:
- January 2008
- ISBN:
- 9780198570820
- eISBN:
- 9780191718762
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780198570820.003.0003
- Subject:
- Physics, Crystallography
This chapter gives a comprehensive account of the symmetry of incommensurately modulated crystals. Diffraction symmetry is shown to be given by a crystallographic point group as it is known from the ...
More
This chapter gives a comprehensive account of the symmetry of incommensurately modulated crystals. Diffraction symmetry is shown to be given by a crystallographic point group as it is known from the crystallography of periodic crystals. A complete list of symmetry restrictions on modulation wave vectors is derived from this property. The symmetry of incommensurate crystals with an one-dimensional modulation is given by (3+1)-dimensional superspace groups. The latter are defined as a subset of the space groups in four-dimensional space. A thorough discussion is given of the notation of superspace groups, of equivalence relations between them, and of their various settings. Symmetry properties of modulation functions and other structural parameters are presented. An expression is derived for the structure factor of Bragg reflections that incorporates the full superspace symmetry of the incommensurately modulated structure.Less
This chapter gives a comprehensive account of the symmetry of incommensurately modulated crystals. Diffraction symmetry is shown to be given by a crystallographic point group as it is known from the crystallography of periodic crystals. A complete list of symmetry restrictions on modulation wave vectors is derived from this property. The symmetry of incommensurate crystals with an one-dimensional modulation is given by (3+1)-dimensional superspace groups. The latter are defined as a subset of the space groups in four-dimensional space. A thorough discussion is given of the notation of superspace groups, of equivalence relations between them, and of their various settings. Symmetry properties of modulation functions and other structural parameters are presented. An expression is derived for the structure factor of Bragg reflections that incorporates the full superspace symmetry of the incommensurately modulated structure.
