Vincent Azoulay
- Published in print:
- 2014
- Published Online:
- October 2017
- ISBN:
- 9780691154596
- eISBN:
- 9781400851171
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Princeton University Press
- DOI:
- 10.23943/princeton/9780691154596.003.0003
- Subject:
- History, Ancient History / Archaeology
This chapter examines one of the bases of Pericles' political power: as military leader, which rests upon the office of a stratēgos. It first considers the institutional and military mainsprings of ...
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This chapter examines one of the bases of Pericles' political power: as military leader, which rests upon the office of a stratēgos. It first considers the institutional and military mainsprings of Pericles' authority before discussing the function of a stratēgos and the reasons why the role played by this office was so crucial in Athens. It then explores how Pericles set up a veritable policy for glory, even to the point of singing the praises of his own successes. It also analyzes Pericles' military strategy in the Peloponnesian War and concludes with the argument that Pericles' success rested on military glory—as head of the Athenian armies and navies. The chapter shows that, as a stratēgos in warfare, well accustomed to military command, Pericles dominated Athenian political life for twenty or so years.Less
This chapter examines one of the bases of Pericles' political power: as military leader, which rests upon the office of a stratēgos. It first considers the institutional and military mainsprings of Pericles' authority before discussing the function of a stratēgos and the reasons why the role played by this office was so crucial in Athens. It then explores how Pericles set up a veritable policy for glory, even to the point of singing the praises of his own successes. It also analyzes Pericles' military strategy in the Peloponnesian War and concludes with the argument that Pericles' success rested on military glory—as head of the Athenian armies and navies. The chapter shows that, as a stratēgos in warfare, well accustomed to military command, Pericles dominated Athenian political life for twenty or so years.
Matthew Rendle
- Published in print:
- 2009
- Published Online:
- February 2010
- ISBN:
- 9780199236251
- eISBN:
- 9780191717154
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199236251.003.0003
- Subject:
- History, European Modern History
This chapter argues that sections of the tsarist elite played an important role during the February Revolution of 1917 as popular unrest broke out in Petrograd. Duma leaders saw an opportunity to ...
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This chapter argues that sections of the tsarist elite played an important role during the February Revolution of 1917 as popular unrest broke out in Petrograd. Duma leaders saw an opportunity to enact the political change that they had desired for years. Military leaders, whose support was crucial to the Tsar, came out in support of the Duma, believing that political change offered the best chance of victory in the war. The Provisional Government was formed before the majority of elites had a chance to react, but its liberal ideals and their fear of further unrest persuaded them to support it. Elites felt that they had participated in the revolution alongside other social groups, but the extent of the political change had been further than most had initially desired, whilst popular demands for social reform threatened their future position.Less
This chapter argues that sections of the tsarist elite played an important role during the February Revolution of 1917 as popular unrest broke out in Petrograd. Duma leaders saw an opportunity to enact the political change that they had desired for years. Military leaders, whose support was crucial to the Tsar, came out in support of the Duma, believing that political change offered the best chance of victory in the war. The Provisional Government was formed before the majority of elites had a chance to react, but its liberal ideals and their fear of further unrest persuaded them to support it. Elites felt that they had participated in the revolution alongside other social groups, but the extent of the political change had been further than most had initially desired, whilst popular demands for social reform threatened their future position.
Burnett Bolloten
- Published in print:
- 2015
- Published Online:
- May 2016
- ISBN:
- 9781469624464
- eISBN:
- 9781469624488
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- University of North Carolina Press
- DOI:
- 10.5149/northcarolina/9781469624464.003.0003
- Subject:
- History, European Modern History
This chapter discusses the conspiratorial activities of military and political leaders as well as their difficulties in reaching agreement regarding the insurrection. It offers reasons as to why the ...
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This chapter discusses the conspiratorial activities of military and political leaders as well as their difficulties in reaching agreement regarding the insurrection. It offers reasons as to why the government had not been able to prevent the uprising despite numerous reports of insurgent activities, and how the little they had done to act upon these conspiracies only aggravated tensions further. The chapter positions General Emilio Mola as the rebellion's principal organizer who was responsible for uniting the diverse conspiracies and rebellious impulses against the Republic and the Popular Front. It notes that even within the rebellion's ranks further crises threatened to stall the insurrection, such as Francisco Franco's hesitance to join the rebellion till later on. Furthermore, plans for the uprising were hindered by political differences between the rival Alphonsine and Carlist monarchists as well as by disagreements between the Falange and the military conspirators.Less
This chapter discusses the conspiratorial activities of military and political leaders as well as their difficulties in reaching agreement regarding the insurrection. It offers reasons as to why the government had not been able to prevent the uprising despite numerous reports of insurgent activities, and how the little they had done to act upon these conspiracies only aggravated tensions further. The chapter positions General Emilio Mola as the rebellion's principal organizer who was responsible for uniting the diverse conspiracies and rebellious impulses against the Republic and the Popular Front. It notes that even within the rebellion's ranks further crises threatened to stall the insurrection, such as Francisco Franco's hesitance to join the rebellion till later on. Furthermore, plans for the uprising were hindered by political differences between the rival Alphonsine and Carlist monarchists as well as by disagreements between the Falange and the military conspirators.
Stefano Recchia
- Published in print:
- 2015
- Published Online:
- August 2016
- ISBN:
- 9780801452918
- eISBN:
- 9781501701559
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Cornell University Press
- DOI:
- 10.7591/cornell/9780801452918.003.0005
- Subject:
- Political Science, Security Studies
This chapter examines how the U.S. military leaders' reluctance to intervene in Bosnia between 1992 and 1995 played a crucial role in keeping American policy on a steady multilateral track. It shows ...
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This chapter examines how the U.S. military leaders' reluctance to intervene in Bosnia between 1992 and 1995 played a crucial role in keeping American policy on a steady multilateral track. It shows how proceeding by multilateral agreement through NATO comes at considerable cost, limiting U.S. freedom of action, encouraging local warring factions, and harming the Clinton administration's domestic and international standing. In the end, the Washington state's multilateral approach paid off, at least to the extent that it limited U.S. liability. In proceeding by consensus with the European allies and channelling the use of force through NATO, the United States was able to link the alliance's future credibility to success in Bosnia.Less
This chapter examines how the U.S. military leaders' reluctance to intervene in Bosnia between 1992 and 1995 played a crucial role in keeping American policy on a steady multilateral track. It shows how proceeding by multilateral agreement through NATO comes at considerable cost, limiting U.S. freedom of action, encouraging local warring factions, and harming the Clinton administration's domestic and international standing. In the end, the Washington state's multilateral approach paid off, at least to the extent that it limited U.S. liability. In proceeding by consensus with the European allies and channelling the use of force through NATO, the United States was able to link the alliance's future credibility to success in Bosnia.
Pamela Kyle Crossley
- Published in print:
- 2000
- Published Online:
- March 2012
- ISBN:
- 9780520215665
- eISBN:
- 9780520928848
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- University of California Press
- DOI:
- 10.1525/california/9780520215665.003.0007
- Subject:
- History, Asian History
This chapter explores the impact of the spirit of the European “curiosity cabinet” on the use of cabinets by each Qing prince, noting that the boxes were the toys of universalism, in which reality is ...
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This chapter explores the impact of the spirit of the European “curiosity cabinet” on the use of cabinets by each Qing prince, noting that the boxes were the toys of universalism, in which reality is bestowed upon objects by subjecting them to the imperial power to stereotype, miniaturize, and segregate. It discusses that Qing art of the Qianlong period is famous for its reproduction of miniaturized complete worlds in various media. As with many other developments of the earlier Qing, the imperial trajectory went from consolidations of purposes of conquest to archetypes for purposes of expressing imperial universality to collapse, conflation, and fusion of court representation in the period of disintegrating imperial rule and increasing influence from civilian elites, progressive military leaders, and anxious aristocrats.Less
This chapter explores the impact of the spirit of the European “curiosity cabinet” on the use of cabinets by each Qing prince, noting that the boxes were the toys of universalism, in which reality is bestowed upon objects by subjecting them to the imperial power to stereotype, miniaturize, and segregate. It discusses that Qing art of the Qianlong period is famous for its reproduction of miniaturized complete worlds in various media. As with many other developments of the earlier Qing, the imperial trajectory went from consolidations of purposes of conquest to archetypes for purposes of expressing imperial universality to collapse, conflation, and fusion of court representation in the period of disintegrating imperial rule and increasing influence from civilian elites, progressive military leaders, and anxious aristocrats.
Robert M. Sandow
- Published in print:
- 2009
- Published Online:
- September 2011
- ISBN:
- 9780823230518
- eISBN:
- 9780823240845
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Fordham University Press
- DOI:
- 10.5422/fordham/9780823230518.003.0007
- Subject:
- History, American History: 19th Century
Since its enactment, the conscription policy was the primary cause for resistance throughout the North. While spread across the free states, draft resistance became concentrated in pockets of ...
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Since its enactment, the conscription policy was the primary cause for resistance throughout the North. While spread across the free states, draft resistance became concentrated in pockets of “deserter country,” most acute in the “butternut” region of the lower-Midwest, Wisconsin, and the mountains of Pennsylvania. The published regulations for the Provost Marshal General's Bureau authorized marshals to make use of the nearest military force or even call upon citizens as a posse comitatus. In Columbia County, military authorities could not prove a widespread civilian conspiracy to resist the draft. Fear coupled with a desire for lenience induced several key fugitives to divulge information about the Democratic Castle. Military leaders were given copies of the organization's constitution and bylaws, descriptions of secret passwords and signs, and partial lists of members for several regional chapters.Less
Since its enactment, the conscription policy was the primary cause for resistance throughout the North. While spread across the free states, draft resistance became concentrated in pockets of “deserter country,” most acute in the “butternut” region of the lower-Midwest, Wisconsin, and the mountains of Pennsylvania. The published regulations for the Provost Marshal General's Bureau authorized marshals to make use of the nearest military force or even call upon citizens as a posse comitatus. In Columbia County, military authorities could not prove a widespread civilian conspiracy to resist the draft. Fear coupled with a desire for lenience induced several key fugitives to divulge information about the Democratic Castle. Military leaders were given copies of the organization's constitution and bylaws, descriptions of secret passwords and signs, and partial lists of members for several regional chapters.
Tanya Harmer
- Published in print:
- 2011
- Published Online:
- July 2014
- ISBN:
- 9780807834954
- eISBN:
- 9781469602721
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- University of North Carolina Press
- DOI:
- 10.5149/9780807869246_harmer.8
- Subject:
- History, Latin American History
This chapter discusses how Salvador Allende embraced the idea that his election represented a turning point for inter-American affairs. On the night of his election victory, Allende had spoken ...
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This chapter discusses how Salvador Allende embraced the idea that his election represented a turning point for inter-American affairs. On the night of his election victory, Allende had spoken elatedly to thousands of supporters in downtown Santiago and declared that countries around the world were looking at Chile. Indeed they were, but not necessarily with the admiration that Allende implied. Beyond Cuba, and across the Americas, Allende's election simultaneously sparked jubilation, terror, respect, and apprehension. While the majority of Latin America's leaders adopted moderate postures toward Chilean events, others were far more alarmist. Brazilian military leaders, in particular, began referring to Chile as “yet another country on the other side of the Iron Curtain,” only more dangerous because it was so close.Less
This chapter discusses how Salvador Allende embraced the idea that his election represented a turning point for inter-American affairs. On the night of his election victory, Allende had spoken elatedly to thousands of supporters in downtown Santiago and declared that countries around the world were looking at Chile. Indeed they were, but not necessarily with the admiration that Allende implied. Beyond Cuba, and across the Americas, Allende's election simultaneously sparked jubilation, terror, respect, and apprehension. While the majority of Latin America's leaders adopted moderate postures toward Chilean events, others were far more alarmist. Brazilian military leaders, in particular, began referring to Chile as “yet another country on the other side of the Iron Curtain,” only more dangerous because it was so close.
Julian Jackson
- Published in print:
- 2001
- Published Online:
- October 2011
- ISBN:
- 9780198207061
- eISBN:
- 9780191677465
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780198207061.003.0002
- Subject:
- History, European Modern History
This chapter examines the cultural legacy of the Great War, suggesting that it provided a repository of themes, transcending left and right, ...
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This chapter examines the cultural legacy of the Great War, suggesting that it provided a repository of themes, transcending left and right, which in many respects anticipated Vichy. The war is an obvious place to start because, after all, the Vichy regime was headed by the popular hero of that war. It is striking how much Vichy’s National Revolution owed to the rhetoric of the Great War: the exaltation of national unity, the celebration of the Soldier-Peasant and the nurturing Mother, the cult of the military leader, and the suspicion of politicians.Less
This chapter examines the cultural legacy of the Great War, suggesting that it provided a repository of themes, transcending left and right, which in many respects anticipated Vichy. The war is an obvious place to start because, after all, the Vichy regime was headed by the popular hero of that war. It is striking how much Vichy’s National Revolution owed to the rhetoric of the Great War: the exaltation of national unity, the celebration of the Soldier-Peasant and the nurturing Mother, the cult of the military leader, and the suspicion of politicians.
Emily Goldman
- Published in print:
- 2010
- Published Online:
- June 2013
- ISBN:
- 9780804757263
- eISBN:
- 9780804777353
- Item type:
- book
- Publisher:
- Stanford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.11126/stanford/9780804757263.001.0001
- Subject:
- Political Science, Conflict Politics and Policy
The United States faces a complex and rapidly shifting international security landscape. Forces of ethnic and religious extremism, diffusion of information technologies, proliferation of mass ...
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The United States faces a complex and rapidly shifting international security landscape. Forces of ethnic and religious extremism, diffusion of information technologies, proliferation of mass destruction weapons, and newly empowered non-state actors are just some of the trends whose complex interplay will produce unanticipated threats. Yet, while the future is more uncertain today than during the Cold War, we currently have a window of opportunity for shaping a more favorable future. The challenge for the United States, and for all states, is not just to manage uncertainty but also to prevail in spite of it. To help address that challenge, this book examines strategic choices in uncertain times and analyzes how different strategies position states to compete, manage risk, and prevail despite uncertainty. It investigates how past and current political and military leaders have responded to uncertain strategic and technological environments, and assesses the consequences of those strategies for their state's power and influence.Less
The United States faces a complex and rapidly shifting international security landscape. Forces of ethnic and religious extremism, diffusion of information technologies, proliferation of mass destruction weapons, and newly empowered non-state actors are just some of the trends whose complex interplay will produce unanticipated threats. Yet, while the future is more uncertain today than during the Cold War, we currently have a window of opportunity for shaping a more favorable future. The challenge for the United States, and for all states, is not just to manage uncertainty but also to prevail in spite of it. To help address that challenge, this book examines strategic choices in uncertain times and analyzes how different strategies position states to compete, manage risk, and prevail despite uncertainty. It investigates how past and current political and military leaders have responded to uncertain strategic and technological environments, and assesses the consequences of those strategies for their state's power and influence.
Mark Harrison
- Published in print:
- 2008
- Published Online:
- October 2013
- ISBN:
- 9780300125245
- eISBN:
- 9780300151701
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Yale University Press
- DOI:
- 10.12987/yale/9780300125245.003.0010
- Subject:
- History, European Modern History
This chapter sums up the key findings of this study on the history of the defense industry in the Soviet Union during the regime of Joseph Stalin. It suggests that defense issues were at the core of ...
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This chapter sums up the key findings of this study on the history of the defense industry in the Soviet Union during the regime of Joseph Stalin. It suggests that defense issues were at the core of Stalin's dictatorship and that when he became a dictator, he did not want, and indeed came to fear, strong military and industrial leaders with the independence to stand up to him or the potential to join against him. The chapter concludes that Stalin's management of the defense economy was both single-minded and remarkably effective, and explains that he was able to produce sufficient weapons to raise an army strong enough to beat off external threats and maintain his power.Less
This chapter sums up the key findings of this study on the history of the defense industry in the Soviet Union during the regime of Joseph Stalin. It suggests that defense issues were at the core of Stalin's dictatorship and that when he became a dictator, he did not want, and indeed came to fear, strong military and industrial leaders with the independence to stand up to him or the potential to join against him. The chapter concludes that Stalin's management of the defense economy was both single-minded and remarkably effective, and explains that he was able to produce sufficient weapons to raise an army strong enough to beat off external threats and maintain his power.
Richard Bassett
- Published in print:
- 2015
- Published Online:
- January 2016
- ISBN:
- 9780300178586
- eISBN:
- 9780300213102
- Item type:
- book
- Publisher:
- Yale University Press
- DOI:
- 10.12987/yale/9780300178586.001.0001
- Subject:
- History, Military History
This book presents an account of the Habsburg army. The text shows how the Imperial Austrian Army, time and again, was a decisive factor in the story of Europe, the balance of international power, ...
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This book presents an account of the Habsburg army. The text shows how the Imperial Austrian Army, time and again, was a decisive factor in the story of Europe, the balance of international power, and the defense of Christendom. Moreover, it was the first pan-European army made up of different nationalities and faiths, counting among its soldiers not only Christians but also Muslims and Jews. The book tours some of the most important campaigns and battles in modern European military history, from the seventeenth century through World War I. It details technical and social developments that coincided with the army's story and provides fascinating portraits of the great military leaders as well as noteworthy figures of lesser renown. Departing from conventional assessments of the Habsburg army as ineffective, outdated, and repeatedly inadequate, the book argues that it was a uniquely cohesive and formidable fighting force, in many respects one of the glories of the old Europe.Less
This book presents an account of the Habsburg army. The text shows how the Imperial Austrian Army, time and again, was a decisive factor in the story of Europe, the balance of international power, and the defense of Christendom. Moreover, it was the first pan-European army made up of different nationalities and faiths, counting among its soldiers not only Christians but also Muslims and Jews. The book tours some of the most important campaigns and battles in modern European military history, from the seventeenth century through World War I. It details technical and social developments that coincided with the army's story and provides fascinating portraits of the great military leaders as well as noteworthy figures of lesser renown. Departing from conventional assessments of the Habsburg army as ineffective, outdated, and repeatedly inadequate, the book argues that it was a uniquely cohesive and formidable fighting force, in many respects one of the glories of the old Europe.
Timothy Bolton
- Published in print:
- 2017
- Published Online:
- September 2017
- ISBN:
- 9780300208337
- eISBN:
- 9780300226256
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Yale University Press
- DOI:
- 10.12987/yale/9780300208337.003.0009
- Subject:
- History, British and Irish Medieval History
This concluding chapter describes how Cnut emerged in several complementary roles: an intelligent and pragmatic diplomacist, an energetic and active ruler, a cunning and resourceful military leader, ...
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This concluding chapter describes how Cnut emerged in several complementary roles: an intelligent and pragmatic diplomacist, an energetic and active ruler, a cunning and resourceful military leader, and a devout Christian. His life falls into three main phases. First, his early life appears to have been shaped by the instabilities of his family and its hold on Denmark—namely his position as second son to Swen Forkbeard—which lead to his conquest of England. The middle years of his life reveal a period of rapid activity characterized by Cnut's responses to various threats. Finally, the years of his mature life saw the fruits of this labor in the development of a stable court around Cnut, which appears to have fostered a new and distinct Anglo-Danish identity.Less
This concluding chapter describes how Cnut emerged in several complementary roles: an intelligent and pragmatic diplomacist, an energetic and active ruler, a cunning and resourceful military leader, and a devout Christian. His life falls into three main phases. First, his early life appears to have been shaped by the instabilities of his family and its hold on Denmark—namely his position as second son to Swen Forkbeard—which lead to his conquest of England. The middle years of his life reveal a period of rapid activity characterized by Cnut's responses to various threats. Finally, the years of his mature life saw the fruits of this labor in the development of a stable court around Cnut, which appears to have fostered a new and distinct Anglo-Danish identity.
Michael A. Bonura
- Published in print:
- 2012
- Published Online:
- March 2016
- ISBN:
- 9780814709429
- eISBN:
- 9780814723173
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- NYU Press
- DOI:
- 10.18574/nyu/9780814709429.003.0008
- Subject:
- History, Military History
This concluding chapter reiterates the lessons ascribed to previous chapters in providing a context for the paradigm shift that occurred in the American military in the years between the two World ...
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This concluding chapter reiterates the lessons ascribed to previous chapters in providing a context for the paradigm shift that occurred in the American military in the years between the two World Wars. This postwar intellectual revolution was caused by three factors: the need for cultural acceptance of new ideas, a military crisis on the battlefield, and a strong military leader to champion the new conceptualization. The adoption of the French combat method in 1815 and the adoption of a new framework in 1940–41 were remarkably similar in requiring these three components. Understanding both these frameworks as a context, an intellectual backdrop for all the decisions, policies, actions, and combats, presents a whole new series of important historical questions and new analyses—most importantly the analysis of command decisions, combat reactions, or intelligence estimates.Less
This concluding chapter reiterates the lessons ascribed to previous chapters in providing a context for the paradigm shift that occurred in the American military in the years between the two World Wars. This postwar intellectual revolution was caused by three factors: the need for cultural acceptance of new ideas, a military crisis on the battlefield, and a strong military leader to champion the new conceptualization. The adoption of the French combat method in 1815 and the adoption of a new framework in 1940–41 were remarkably similar in requiring these three components. Understanding both these frameworks as a context, an intellectual backdrop for all the decisions, policies, actions, and combats, presents a whole new series of important historical questions and new analyses—most importantly the analysis of command decisions, combat reactions, or intelligence estimates.
Neil James Mitchell
- Published in print:
- 2012
- Published Online:
- March 2016
- ISBN:
- 9780814761441
- eISBN:
- 9780814763377
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- NYU Press
- DOI:
- 10.18574/nyu/9780814761441.003.0001
- Subject:
- Political Science, International Relations and Politics
This introductory chapter explains the gravitational theory of accountability. This theory has one central proposition: blame falls to the bottom. In particular, when things go wrong with a policy, ...
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This introductory chapter explains the gravitational theory of accountability. This theory has one central proposition: blame falls to the bottom. In particular, when things go wrong with a policy, people try to shift the blame. Those best placed to do this are those at the top. Even when there is evidence of complicity at the highest levels of government, blame will find its lowest plausible level. For instance, when the news of abuse or atrocity hits the front page, leaders faced with managing the blame are likely to react in a self-interested and opportunistic way and seek to deny and evade accountability. In arguing for this proposition, the book places political and military leaders at the center of the explanation of how democracies manage the blame for atrocities by giving modest expectations about their motives as they adapt to the demands and pressures of their political environment.Less
This introductory chapter explains the gravitational theory of accountability. This theory has one central proposition: blame falls to the bottom. In particular, when things go wrong with a policy, people try to shift the blame. Those best placed to do this are those at the top. Even when there is evidence of complicity at the highest levels of government, blame will find its lowest plausible level. For instance, when the news of abuse or atrocity hits the front page, leaders faced with managing the blame are likely to react in a self-interested and opportunistic way and seek to deny and evade accountability. In arguing for this proposition, the book places political and military leaders at the center of the explanation of how democracies manage the blame for atrocities by giving modest expectations about their motives as they adapt to the demands and pressures of their political environment.
Donald Ostrowski (ed.)
- Published in print:
- 2020
- Published Online:
- January 2021
- ISBN:
- 9781501749704
- eISBN:
- 9781501749728
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Cornell University Press
- DOI:
- 10.7591/cornell/9781501749704.003.0008
- Subject:
- Literature, World Literature
This chapter discusses Prince Andrei Mikhailovich Kurbskii, who was one of Russia's top military leaders and took part in the conquest of Kazan' in 1552. It explains Kurbskii's fame on engaging in an ...
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This chapter discusses Prince Andrei Mikhailovich Kurbskii, who was one of Russia's top military leaders and took part in the conquest of Kazan' in 1552. It explains Kurbskii's fame on engaging in an exchange of letters with Ivan IV in the second half of the sixteenth century, which he supposedly wrote after he defected. The chapter talks about Edward L. Keenan, a Harvard University professor of Russian history, who challenged the accepted attribution of Kurbskii's letters to Ivan IV and questioned their basic literacy. It highlights how Keenan wrote three articles in response to critics, only slightly altering his views to be even more sceptical that Kurbskii composed or translated anything.Less
This chapter discusses Prince Andrei Mikhailovich Kurbskii, who was one of Russia's top military leaders and took part in the conquest of Kazan' in 1552. It explains Kurbskii's fame on engaging in an exchange of letters with Ivan IV in the second half of the sixteenth century, which he supposedly wrote after he defected. The chapter talks about Edward L. Keenan, a Harvard University professor of Russian history, who challenged the accepted attribution of Kurbskii's letters to Ivan IV and questioned their basic literacy. It highlights how Keenan wrote three articles in response to critics, only slightly altering his views to be even more sceptical that Kurbskii composed or translated anything.