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The Curse in Other Cultures

Alexander Murray

in Suicide in the Middle Ages: Volume ii: The Curse on Self-Murder

This chapter begins with a second reflection about historical method. It is about an intellectual convention quite as innate as periodisation to historical thoughts, namely the assignment of sources. ... More

This chapter begins with a second reflection about historical method. It is about an intellectual convention quite as innate as periodisation to historical thoughts, namely the assignment of sources. It is divided into five sections, split into two groups. The first three sections look at custom and belief in societies with no obvious claim to be sources of universal European custom. Considered here are suicide taboos among primitive peoples, attitudes to suicide in ancient and medieval India, and suicide law in medieval Islam. The last two sections examine milieux from which suicide taboos might directly have been transmitted, looking at suicide and the early Germans, and Egypt.Less

Graves and Shrines in Medieval Islam: From Pre-Islamic Times to Ibn Taymiyya’s Legacy

Ondřej Beránek and Pavel Ťupek

in The Temptation of Graves in Salafi Islam: Iconoclasm, Destruction and Idolatry

This chapter provides an overview of the broader context within which debates regarding graves, funeral architecture and ziyāra have taken place. The early Islamic interdictions against certain ... More

This chapter provides an overview of the broader context within which debates regarding graves, funeral architecture and ziyāra have taken place. The early Islamic interdictions against certain funerary structures and grave-related rites did not arise in a vacuum. Therefore, the chapter contextualises these debates and the gap that began to emerge between the traditionalists’ (Ahl al-hadith) vision of ideal Islam and the reality of popular Islam. The chapter also offers a detailed focus on the teachings of Ibn Taymiyya, as it was his narrative of Islamic history and the ideal Islamic community that inspired later Sunni reformists, among them the Salafis, who sought to defend Islamic identity against the incursion of foreign influences and impurities, be they elements of Christianity, Judaism, syncretism or modernity.Less

Accommodating “Others”: Tolerance and Coercion in Medieval Islam

in Jews, Christians, and the Abode of Islam: Modern Scholarship, Medieval Realities

This chapter describes the concept of “tolerance” in discussing medieval Islam. Jewish-Christian relations in the medieval West varied from time to time and from region to region. Medieval Muslims ... More

This chapter describes the concept of “tolerance” in discussing medieval Islam. Jewish-Christian relations in the medieval West varied from time to time and from region to region. Medieval Muslims considering the “others” in their midst viewed the world through a rather different set of lenses. Samhah, tasamuh, and samahah took a different route before becoming synonymous with Western notions of tolerance. There were instances of Jewish converts serving in the administration of the state, but the extent of this phenomenon cannot be gauged. For Jews converting to Islam who were not figures at court or positioned within the religious establishment, there were questions of social space. Even in modern Europe, many Jewish converts looking for social space originally traveled in circles with other converts, an environment they found mutually comforting.Less

Precursors of Conversion Themes under the Umayyads

Ayman S. Ibrahim

in Conversion to Islam: Competing Themes in Early Islamic Historiography

Chapter 2 is devoted to sources attributed to pre-ᶜAbbāsid writers, who lived and wrote during the Umayyad Caliphate: Sulaym ibn Qays (d. 76/695), Ibn Shihāb al-Zuhrī (d. 124/741), and Mūsā ibn ᶜUqba ... More

Chapter 2 is devoted to sources attributed to pre-ᶜAbbāsid writers, who lived and wrote during the Umayyad Caliphate: Sulaym ibn Qays (d. 76/695), Ibn Shihāb al-Zuhrī (d. 124/741), and Mūsā ibn ᶜUqba (d. 135/752). These sources are problematic for various reasons, examined extensively in the first section of the chapter. The chapter then focuses on the literary descriptions of conversion and detectable themes. This chapter demonstrates how the earliest available historical reports include precursors of conversion themes, which are to be developed, used, or reinterpreted under the ᶜAbbāsid rule. Chapter 2 argues that, since the genesis of Muslim historical writing, religious historians not only emphasized conversion but also used it to advance their religious views and support their political agendas.Less

Mathematics in the Islamic World in Medieval Spain and North Africa

Menso Folkerts, Barnabas Hughes, Roi Wagner, J. Lennart Berggren, Menso Folkerts, Barnabas Hughes, Roi Wagner, J. Lennart Berggren, Menso Folkerts, Barnabas Hughes, Roi Wagner, and J. Lennart Berggren

Victor J. Katz, Victor J. Katz, and Victor J. Katz (eds)

in Sourcebook in the Mathematics of Medieval Europe and North Africa

This chapter turns to the mathematics of medieval Islam. These include the mathematical theories and practices that grew, and often flourished, in that part of the world where the dominant religious ... More

This chapter turns to the mathematics of medieval Islam. These include the mathematical theories and practices that grew, and often flourished, in that part of the world where the dominant religious and cultural influence was the religion of Islam, though this chapter focuses on the mathematics written in Spain and North Africa. The historical period under consideration is roughly the 700 years from 750 CE to 1450 CE, although the earliest mathematical works date from around 825. The chapter first discusses the arithmetic from this period, through the works of Aḥmad ibn al-Bannā, and others. Treatises on algebra, combinatorics, geometry, and trigonometry also follow, focusing on the selected works of many notable mathematicians of medieval Islam.Less

Christians, Muslims, and Jews: Cross-pollinations in Medieval Philosophy and Science

in Jews, Christians, and the Abode of Islam: Modern Scholarship, Medieval Realities

This chapter discusses a monumental project on Islamic philosophy and science. It specifically considers cross-pollinations in philosophy and science that were to have a profound effect in the Latin ... More

This chapter discusses a monumental project on Islamic philosophy and science. It specifically considers cross-pollinations in philosophy and science that were to have a profound effect in the Latin West and in the Islamic world. The tension between philosophy and religion in Islamic times is evaluated. The beginnings of both philosophy and science in medieval Islam can be traced to the introduction of Arabic as a language. The analysis of science and philosophy was initially advanced by translators drawn from the Hellenized Christian and pagan communities of the pre-Islamic Near East. Medical education was probably uniform for all who practiced regardless of their faith community. The practical experience of working in a hospital was the final stage of medical education. Some early Zionist and current Israeli visionaries saw and continue to see the Jews as playing a central role in the transfer of valued knowledge.Less

Introduction: Conversion Themes in Early Islamic Historiography

Ayman S. Ibrahim

in Conversion to Islam: Competing Themes in Early Islamic Historiography

Chapter 1 introduces the topic of investigation by explaining the research problem and the state of the art. It shows how some modern scholars believe that classical Muslim sources include scarce ... More

Chapter 1 introduces the topic of investigation by explaining the research problem and the state of the art. It shows how some modern scholars believe that classical Muslim sources include scarce information on conversion and consider them the wrong sources for studying the phenomenon. Drawing straightforward links between historiographical reports and events which may have happened centuries earlier is problematic, especially in the absence of actual documentation. However, it is important to study conversion depictions in early Islamic historiographical accounts. Through analyzing a vast number of Arabic Muslim historical accounts, historiography reveals a great deal about conversion. The chapter explains the theoretical basis of the investigation and the methodology of marrying history and historiography by tracing the interplay between historical phenomena and historiographical depictions; external evidence is investigated, then internal criticism is applied. The chapter lists the conversion themes detected, lays out the major arguments of the investigation, and explains the research plan and the outline of the book.Less

Conclusion

Scott G. Bruce

in Cluny and the Muslims of La Garde-Freinet: Hagiography and the Problem of Islam in Medieval Europe

This concluding chapter reiterates that hagiographies had a much wider influence on the formation of medieval approaches to Islam than was previously recognized. The tales told by the monks of Cluny ... More

This concluding chapter reiterates that hagiographies had a much wider influence on the formation of medieval approaches to Islam than was previously recognized. The tales told by the monks of Cluny about the sufferings of Abbot Maiolus and his captivity in the summer of 972 are a case in point. The Muslims of La Garde-Freinet were never recognized as a polity by any Islamic government, but this small community of entrepreneurs played an important role in the political system of Provence. Stories about the abduction of Maiolus by these Muslims provided Abbot Peter the Venerable with an example of interfaith dialogue between Christians and Muslims. Consequently, Peter’s translation of the Qur’an became his most important contribution to the missionary activities regarding Islamic principalities, where mendicants preached to Christians and Muslims alike.Less

Early Medieval Christian and Muslim Attitudes to Pagan Law: A Comparison

Michael Cook

in Islam and its Past: Jahiliyya, Late Antiquity, and the Qur'an

This chapter compares early-medieval Christian and Islamic ideas regarding the acceptability or otherwise of pagan law under the monotheist dispensation. It argues that by and large there is a clear ... More

This chapter compares early-medieval Christian and Islamic ideas regarding the acceptability or otherwise of pagan law under the monotheist dispensation. It argues that by and large there is a clear contrast between the two approaches. The default attitude among early-medieval Christians is that pagan law is acceptable in the absence of specific grounds for rejecting it, whereas the default among Muslims is that it is unacceptable unless there are specific grounds for adopting it. The chapter also seeks to identify the motivations involved—both the reasons actually advanced by jurists on both sides and the underlying historical causes of the divergence.Less

Concepts of Scripture among the Jews of the Medieval Islamic World

Meira Polliack

in Jewish Concepts of Scripture: A Comparative Introduction

This chapter illustrates how the Judaeo-Arabic Karaite exegetes brought about a transition toward a new type of understanding. This understanding embraces the in-depth analysis of the Bible's ... More

This chapter illustrates how the Judaeo-Arabic Karaite exegetes brought about a transition toward a new type of understanding. This understanding embraces the in-depth analysis of the Bible's language and carries it through into new dimensions of discourse analysis, literary structure, and narrative technique. Even though they were capable of applying varied interpretive modes to the biblical text, including midrashic-like allegorizing, the Karaites' rejection of the sanctity of Oral Law, and their refocusing on the Bible as a self-contained text fostered a new path in Jewish Bible interpretation. This path echoed wider needs of a new era of literacy among the Jews of the medieval Islamic world, and gradually it found expression in the works of the Rabbanite Judaeo-Arabic exegetes as well.Less

Conclusion

Ayman S. Ibrahim

in Conversion to Islam: Competing Themes in Early Islamic Historiography

Chapter 5 presents a cohesive conclusion, summarizing the findings, rehearsing the arguments, and synthesizing the concluding remarks of the entire study. Islamic historiography presents varying ... More

Chapter 5 presents a cohesive conclusion, summarizing the findings, rehearsing the arguments, and synthesizing the concluding remarks of the entire study. Islamic historiography presents varying notions of conversion to Islam which are evidenced by repeated literary features and depictions. It suggests not only that conversion started slowly (as recent studies advocate) but also that conversion meant different things, including sincere religious conviction and mere political submission. Medieval Muslim historians utilize conversion themes to address both non-Muslims and Muslims, highlighting the supremacy of Islam to non-Muslims and emphasizing genuineness of faith to Muslims. Literary depictions of conversion are a product of the religious views of the historians, influenced by the sociopolitical requirements at the time of writing.Less

Introduction

Aydogan Kars

in Unsaying God: Negative Theology in Medieval Islam

This chapter introduces the framework and the content of the book and discusses the basic conceptual problems revolving around “negative theology.” It argues that we should not only move from ... More

This chapter introduces the framework and the content of the book and discusses the basic conceptual problems revolving around “negative theology.” It argues that we should not only move from “negative theology” to “negative theologies” in order to approach Islamic intellectual landscapes, but we should also qualify the particular question of theology we are examining. Discussions of negative theology as such tend to confuse divine attributes and the divine essence and reduce apophaticism into a hunt for negative particles and statements. The chapter narrows down the scope of the book to the negative theologies of the divine essence. It also presents justifications for its boundaries and its linguistic preferences, and it defines some technical terms that appear throughout the book. It provides a conceptual introduction to negative theology and a compass to the subsequent chapters of the book.Less

Against Discourse: Amodal Apophaticism

Aydogan Kars

in Unsaying God: Negative Theology in Medieval Islam

Since its emergence as a systematic discipline, the scholarship on prophetic traditions depicted itself as the heir of a scripturalist apophaticism, which cancels itself in favor of the unknowability ... More

Since its emergence as a systematic discipline, the scholarship on prophetic traditions depicted itself as the heir of a scripturalist apophaticism, which cancels itself in favor of the unknowability of the divine nature and the incomprehensibility of the sacred Qurʾanic discourse on it. The main features of this tradition were as follows: (1) the conviction that the Qurʾan is the uncreated, eternal word of God. (2) This premise was fundamental in canceling out human discursive constructs, since they cannot grasp the meaning of the transcendent discourse on God’s nature, specifically in the case of Her anthropomorphic depictions. (3) Any interpretive inquiry is doomed to fail before the unknowable divine nature and the transcendent discourse on it. Theological discourses nullify themselves in favor of a non-cognitive position, where neither the divine ipseity, nor the meaning of the transcendent discourse on it can be known. This non-cognitive, anti-interpretive position played an important and rather exceptional role in the canonization of Sufism in the tenth and eleventh centuries and in the formation of the nascent Sufi orders in the late twelfth and early thirteenth centuries.Less

“Yes and No”: Paradoxical Apophaticism and Dialectical Logic

Aydogan Kars

in Unsaying God: Negative Theology in Medieval Islam

This chapter introduces paradoxical apophaticism on the divine essence and tests the common association of paradox and Sufism, with a particular focus on the self-contradictory phrases and statements ... More

This chapter introduces paradoxical apophaticism on the divine essence and tests the common association of paradox and Sufism, with a particular focus on the self-contradictory phrases and statements in the “X-not-X” forms. Neither the employment nor the celebration of paradoxes were uniquely Sufi phenomenon. Yet it was primarily Sufis from early on who consciously adopted paradoxical apophatic approaches to the divine essence. I argue that the employment of paradoxes follows a rule-governed set of strategies in order to negate propositional discourse on God. These strategies entailed (1) a balanced, or symmetrical, attitude that finds affirmative and negative language equally disqualified, (2) a balanced take on the binary of divine incomparability and immanence, while the vast majority of Muslim scholars hold the former superior, and (3) a dialectical logic that performs divine trans-discursivity by uniting the irreconcilable opposites that constitute propositional discourse.Less

Double Negation: Ismāʿīlī Apophaticism

Aydogan Kars

in Unsaying God: Negative Theology in Medieval Islam

This chapter introduces the contours of the classical Ismāʿīlī negative theology of the divine essence. The apophatic path developed by Ismāʿīlī scholars had distinct cosmological markers and a ... More

This chapter introduces the contours of the classical Ismāʿīlī negative theology of the divine essence. The apophatic path developed by Ismāʿīlī scholars had distinct cosmological markers and a logical structure that enabled the performative self-cancellation of discourse about the inaccessible divine essence. Respecting their diversity, and without essentializing or dehistoricizing them, we can highlight three general features that widely circulated among Ismāʿīlī thinkers until the Mongol invasion: (1) They put the divine essence beyond the divine word, which lies beyond the first creation, the universal intellect. (2) The relative oneness of the divine word can be transcended only by two negations. The first one negates the positive ground and relationality, and the second cancels all (positive and negative) discursivity in order to indicate the beyond of the relative oneness beyond creation. (3) The absolute oneness of God is unknowable, beyond the impenetrable oneness of the divine word.Less