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Marine Mammal Conservation

John R. Twiss, Robert J. Hofman, and John E. Reynolds III

in Foundations of Environmental Sustainability: The Coevolution of Science and Policy

This chapter focuses on the US Marine Mammal Commission, the principles of marine mammal management and conservation associated with it, and the status and conservation issues involved with varying ... More

This chapter focuses on the US Marine Mammal Commission, the principles of marine mammal management and conservation associated with it, and the status and conservation issues involved with varying groups of marine mammals. It shows that much of the past several decades' history of marine mammal conservation is reflected in the background, content, and implementation of, and changes to, the US Marine Mammal Protection Act (MMPA). Key provisions of the MMPA are described, including the functions and composition of the Marine Mammal Commission and its Committee of Scientific Advisors, both of which the act established. How the optimum sustainable population determinations evolved, and the development of the ecosystem approach to marine conservation are discussed.Less

Marine Wildlife Policy: Underlying Ideologies

Michael L. Weber

in Foundations of Environmental Sustainability: The Coevolution of Science and Policy

This chapter focuses on the ideologies that underlie and play a major role in determining the policies of government, management, and even science. Ideology is defined as “the body of doctrines, ... More

This chapter focuses on the ideologies that underlie and play a major role in determining the policies of government, management, and even science. Ideology is defined as “the body of doctrines, myths, and beliefs that guides an individual, social movement, institution, class, or large group”. Prior to the 1970s, the policies for marine wildlife were dominated by an ideology of abundance. The passage of the MMPA introduced a counterideology, the ideology of scarcity. The factors leading to the passage of the MMPA are discussed.Less

Resilience and Reorganization: Archaeology and Historical Ecology of California Channel Island Marine Mammals

Todd J. Braje, Torben C. Rick, Robert L. DeLong, and Jon M. Erlandson

in Human Impacts on Seals, Sea Lions, and Sea Otters: Integrating Archaeology and Ecology in the Northeast Pacific

California's Channel Islands currently shelter more than 200,000 pinnipeds of six different species, and more than a dozen large and small cetacean species also swim through or are seasonally ... More

California's Channel Islands currently shelter more than 200,000 pinnipeds of six different species, and more than a dozen large and small cetacean species also swim through or are seasonally resident in island waters. This chapter explores the archaeology and historical ecology of California Channel Island marine mammals and analyzes the available historical and archaeological evidence for marine mammal hunting in the area. It also draws on archaeological, historical, and ecological data to examine the resilience and reorganization of marine mammal populations on Channel Islands over the past 12,000 years. It summarizes key aspects of the natural history of those North Pacific marine mammals that reside in or visit southern California waters today and were the target of ancient Native hunters and scavengers in the past. After a brief summary of modern marine mammal behavior, natural history, and distribution in the Santa Barbara Bight, the chapter synthesizes the archaeological record of island marine mammal hunting.Less

Changing the Mission:: From the Cold War to Climate Change

Naomi Oreskes

in Science and Technology in the Global Cold War

In the early 1990s a group of American oceanographers sought to change their focus away from Cold War military concerns and toward environmental matters related to anthropogenic climate change. ... More

In the early 1990s a group of American oceanographers sought to change their focus away from Cold War military concerns and toward environmental matters related to anthropogenic climate change. Drawing on insights and technologies developed in the Cold War, they proposed an experiment called ATOC—Acoustic Tomography of Ocean Climate—designed to provide definitive evidence of global warming. But the project was blocked when environmentalists and marine biologists raised concerns that it would harm marine mammals. In the ensuing public debate, the public judged the scientists more on their past activities than their present aspirations: many citizens distrusted the scientists’ new-found environmental passion and believed that global warming was a cover story hiding a secret military project. In the end, they judged scientists who had dedicated their lives to studying the ocean as a theatre of warfare not credible when they presented themselves as trustworthy guardians of the ocean as an abode of life. The failure of ATOC suggests that while Cold war military support led to numerous fundamental advances in understanding the ocean environment, it also created a community of scientists who were disrespectful not only of lay concerns but even of scientific evidence from other domains, unable to explain their work to diverse publics, and distrusted by significant segments of the American people. Forty years of military patronage were not just epistemically consequential, they were socially and culturally consequential as well.Less

Marine Mammals: Exploiting the Ambiguities of Article 65 of the Convention on the Law of the Sea and Related Provisions: Practice under the International Convention for the Regulation of Whaling

Patricia W Birnie

in The Law of the Sea: Progress and Prospects

The 1982 United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (LOSC) conceals more than it reveals concerning the difficulties experienced by the Third United Nations Conference on the Law of the Sea ... More

The 1982 United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (LOSC) conceals more than it reveals concerning the difficulties experienced by the Third United Nations Conference on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS III) in introducing restrictive international controls on exploitation of marine living resources, including marine mammals. A considerable number of non-governmental organisations, representing both commercial and environmental concerns, began to attend the UNCLOS III negotiating sessions to lobby the negotiators in order to safeguard their particular interests. Article 65 in its final form reflects the many compromises resulting from this process, including the limitations of marine mammal treaties concluded more than a century ago, as well as more recent fisheries and marine environment conventions across a broad spectrum. This chapter examines the ambiguities of Article 65 of the LOSC with respect to regulation of whaling, along with problems arising in the drafting of Articles 64, 65, and 120 of the LOSC. New initiatives within the International Whaling Commission are also discussed.Less

Marine Mammal Protection Act Implementation in an Era of Climate Change

Keith W. Rizzardi

in Climate Change Impacts on Ocean and Coastal Law: U.S. and International Perspectives

Sea-level rise presents immediate threats to coastal wildlife, but marine mammals in the open oceans will experience effects of climate change as well. Prey abundance and habitats will change, ocean ... More

Sea-level rise presents immediate threats to coastal wildlife, but marine mammals in the open oceans will experience effects of climate change as well. Prey abundance and habitats will change, ocean currents and shipping routes may change, and the stock assessments of marine mammals are likely to change, too. The Marine Mammal Protection Act provides special protections for these species, generally prohibiting the “take” of marine mammals in U.S. waters and by U.S. citizens on the high seas, while providing limited exceptions to the take prohibitions. This chapter considers how climate change will affect the future implementation of marine mammal protection laws and policies.Less

Diversity and Dynamics of Californian Subtidal Kelp Forests

Michael Graham, Ben Halpern, and Mark Carr

in Food Webs and the Dynamics of Marine Reefs

The chapter describes the geology, oceanography, and patterns of biogeography of the California kelp forests. The structure and biodiversity of the kelp forest food web for all trophic guilds is ... More

The chapter describes the geology, oceanography, and patterns of biogeography of the California kelp forests. The structure and biodiversity of the kelp forest food web for all trophic guilds is described as well as findings from experimental manipulations and long time series studies. The chapter finishes with a discussion of the role of fishing, habitat loss, and climate change on these kelp forests.Less

Introduction

Cameron S. G. Jefferies

in Marine Mammal Conservation and the Law of the Sea

This chapter introduces the book, which explores the complicated relationship between humans and marine mammals and the struggles associated with achieving effective management. After exploring the ... More

This chapter introduces the book, which explores the complicated relationship between humans and marine mammals and the struggles associated with achieving effective management. After exploring the many dimensions of international marine mammal conservation and management, the author proposes the negotiation of a new multilateral convention to supersede and replace existing mechanisms while creating an International Marine Mammal Commission with regulatory jurisdiction over every marine mammal (to the extent practicable). It includes the success of regional implementation, facilitates the creation of a coordinated network of marine protected areas, requires an observer scheme, and provides recourse to established dispute resolution mechanisms. This book covers all marine mammal species given that they all generally share similar life-history characteristics and are susceptible to the same anthropogenic forces. It also advances a comprehensive regime that addresses lethal utilization and by-catch, and other conservation concerns, including marine pollution, impacts of climate change, habitat degradation, and ship-strikes.Less

The Current Marine Mammal Regulatory Landscape

Cameron S. G. Jefferies

in Marine Mammal Conservation and the Law of the Sea

This chapter demonstrates that the current approach to international marine mammal conservation remains fragmented and ad hoc, and also that its rigidity renders it unable to respond to emerging ... More

This chapter demonstrates that the current approach to international marine mammal conservation remains fragmented and ad hoc, and also that its rigidity renders it unable to respond to emerging threats or to adequately incorporate modern principles and norms of international governance. This chapter provides an essential overview of the current approach to marine mammal conservation, as it exists at the international and regional levels of governance. It provides an understanding of both the basis for the regulation of marine mammals and the current regulatory efforts, and indicates how to: identify gaps in coverage (in terms of both species and area), determine what has and has not worked well in the past, and justify the new international regime that forms this book’s central focus.Less

The Proposal: Part I—The Framework for a New Approach

Cameron S. G. Jefferies

in Marine Mammal Conservation and the Law of the Sea

This chapter presents the framework for a new implementing agreement, titled “Draft Agreement for the Implementation of the Provisions of the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea of 10 ... More

This chapter presents the framework for a new implementing agreement, titled “Draft Agreement for the Implementation of the Provisions of the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea of 10 December 1982 Relating to the Conservation and Sustainable Management of Marine Mammals” (“UN Marine Mammals Agreement” or “Agreement”). Appendix 3 provides a complete draft agreement. This introduction is organized thematically, addressing: (1) introductory matters; (2) the institutional structure of the proposed regime; (3) enforcement, compliance, and dispute resolution mechanisms; and (4) political obstacles. It incorporates and defines key principles of international governance, frames the scope of regulation, promotes regional implementation and compliance, provides recourse to peaceful dispute resolution, facilitates institutional cooperation, and attempts to balance the pro- and anti-whaling positions that must be reconciled to sustain marine mammal populations through the twenty-first century and beyond.Less

Toward a Historical Ecology of Pinniped and Sea Otter Hunting Traditions on the Coast of Southern British Columbia

Iain McKechnie and Rebecca J. Wigen

in Human Impacts on Seals, Sea Lions, and Sea Otters: Integrating Archaeology and Ecology in the Northeast Pacific

Marine mammals (pinnipeds, cetaceans, and sea otters) have been important to the First Nations people in coastal British Columbia for millennia, but their archaeological distribution is poorly known. ... More

Marine mammals (pinnipeds, cetaceans, and sea otters) have been important to the First Nations people in coastal British Columbia for millennia, but their archaeological distribution is poorly known. While archaeological evidence of marine mammal hunting is known for numerous locations over the past 10,000 years of human occupation on the British Columbia Coast, few studies have examined archaeological evidence of mammalian hunting traditions on broad regional and/or temporal scales. This chapter analyzes archaeological evidence on the historical ecology of pinniped and sea otter hunting traditions, focusing on archaeological assemblages along the coast of southern British Columbia. It examines the spatiotemporal extent of human hunting and the possible influence of humans on this aspect of the marine environment. It also discusses the potential significance that hunting these animals had to First Nations cultures in the region. Drawing on archaeological and ethnographic information, it looks at the patterns of use of marine mammals by First Nations people over the past 8,000 years.Less

Hyporegulators Hyporegulators

Timothy J. Bradley

in Animal Osmoregulation

Many organisms living in the oceans or in salt lakes are hyporegulators, meaning that they maintain their body fluids hypo-osmotically to the external medium. Marine fish hyporegulate by drinking the ... More

Many organisms living in the oceans or in salt lakes are hyporegulators, meaning that they maintain their body fluids hypo-osmotically to the external medium. Marine fish hyporegulate by drinking the external medium and transporting sodium and chloride ions outward across the gills. Marine reptiles and birds use salt glands in the head to transport hyperosmotic fluids outward. Marine mammals are able to produce hyperosmotic urine in the kidneys. Insects use portions of the hindgut to actively transport ions out of their hemolymph. Brine shrimp are the champion hyporegulators of the animal kingdom. They use salt glands to rid their bodies of the salts accumulated in waters many times more concentrated than the oceans.Less

People, Pinnipeds, and Sea Otters of the Northeast Pacific

Torben C. Rick, Todd J. Braje, and Robert L. DeLong

in Human Impacts on Seals, Sea Lions, and Sea Otters: Integrating Archaeology and Ecology in the Northeast Pacific

Often highly intelligent with sophisticated communication systems, marine mammals are a fundamental component of marine ecosystems around the world. Archaeological data demonstrate that human impacts ... More

Often highly intelligent with sophisticated communication systems, marine mammals are a fundamental component of marine ecosystems around the world. Archaeological data demonstrate that human impacts on marine mammals in the more distant past were substantial and suggest that much remains to be learned about the prehistory of these animals. This book brings together researchers from a variety of disciplines seeking to integrate archaeology, history, and ecology to understand the ancient and modern interactions between pinnipeds, sea otters, people, and marine ecosystems. It investigates the influence of ancient peoples on the biogeography, breeding behavior, and abundance of seals and sea lions over the last several millennia in the northeastern Pacific Coast. Following a brief discussion of archaeology and human environmental impacts, this chapter provides an overview of the ecology of pinnipeds and sea otters in the northeastern Pacific, emphasizing the historical and modern transformations of these various populations.Less

Evidence for Bottom-Up Control of Upper-Trophic-Level Marine Populations: Is It Scale-Dependent?

GEORGE L. HUNT JR.

in Whales, Whaling, and Ocean Ecosystems

This chapter examines the evidence for a bottom-up limitation of upper-trophic-level fish, marine birds, and marine mammals. It presents evidence of the role of food limitation on population size and ... More

This chapter examines the evidence for a bottom-up limitation of upper-trophic-level fish, marine birds, and marine mammals. It presents evidence of the role of food limitation on population size and on individual body condition and growth, both of which can affect fecundity in fish. In marine birds and mammals, body condition similarly affects fecundity and the potential for survival to age of first breeding, as well as adult survival. The discussion then examines briefly aspects of the life history characteristics that would argue for a weak role of predation in the regulation of populations of upper-trophic-level species in the marine environment, the spatial scales at which one might expect top-down or bottom-up control to play a more decisive role, and how the relative mobility of predator and prey affect the likelihood of top-down control.Less

A History of Paleoecological Research on Sea Otters and Pinnipeds of the Eastern Pacific Rim

R. Lee Lyman

in Human Impacts on Seals, Sea Lions, and Sea Otters: Integrating Archaeology and Ecology in the Northeast Pacific

It is not easy to find an article on the zooarchaeology of marine mammals, or on some prehistoric aspect of marine mammals based on zooarchaeological remains in a natural history journal such as ... More

It is not easy to find an article on the zooarchaeology of marine mammals, or on some prehistoric aspect of marine mammals based on zooarchaeological remains in a natural history journal such as Marine Mammal Science. Has the history of zooarchaeological research on North Pacific pinnipeds and sea otters been unique, or has it been but a portion of the much larger history of zooarchaeology in general? Have trends in analysis of pinniped and sea otter remains tracked analytical trends in zooarchaeology in general? This chapter provides some initial answers to these questions. In particular, it reports and comments on the history of paleoecological research on pinniped and sea otter remains recovered from archaeological sites along the northeastern Pacific Coast. It also discusses the biogeography, demography, and rookeries of pinnipeds and sea otters, as well as the use of chemistry, genetics, extirpation, and morphometrics in zooarchaeological research.Less

Goals for the Rational Conservation of Marine Mammals and Emerging Ethical Considerations

Cameron S. G. Jefferies

in Marine Mammal Conservation and the Law of the Sea

This chapter identifies the theoretical framework that supports the analysis. In addition to establishing the basic decision-making model, this chapter fulfills a fundamental aspect of the rational ... More

This chapter identifies the theoretical framework that supports the analysis. In addition to establishing the basic decision-making model, this chapter fulfills a fundamental aspect of the rational decision-making process of goal setting. After exploring the rational decision-making model and establishing these goals, the remainder of the chapter engages in a discussion of the ethical considerations that inform the relationship between man and marine mammal, and considers how ethics influence conservation and management decisions. Scientific advances that inform our understanding of animal ethics and animal welfare are considered and weighed against the utilitarian dimension of the human-marine mammal relationship moving forward.Less

Legacy of Industrial Whaling: Could Killer Whales Be Responsible for Declines of Sea Lions, Elephant Seals, and Minke Whales in the Southern Hemisphere?

TREVOR A. BRANCH and TERRIE M. WILLIAMS

in Whales, Whaling, and Ocean Ecosystems

An intriguing hypothesis that has recently been raised for the North Pacific Ocean and southern Bering Sea (Springer et al., 2003) holds that the reduction in large-cetacean biomass from whaling ... More

An intriguing hypothesis that has recently been raised for the North Pacific Ocean and southern Bering Sea (Springer et al., 2003) holds that the reduction in large-cetacean biomass from whaling caused killer whales to prey on other species. This chapter examines the plausibility of that hypothesis for the Southern Hemisphere. It specifically looks for evidence of the following corollaries of Springer et al.: marine mammal species that are frequently preyed on by killer whales should have declined in the 20th century; marine mammal species not often preyed on by killer whales should have increased or remained stable; and any declines should be consistent with increased killer whale predation. The chapter suggests that it is plausible that these declines in southern elephant seals and southern sea lions were caused by increased predation by killer whales; but in minke whales, it is too precipitous for predation to be the sole cause.Less

“The Nation's First Responsibility” Saving Endangered Species in the Age of Ecology

in Nature's Ghosts: Confronting Extinction from the Age of Jefferson to the Age of Ecology

Shortly after coming to office in early 1961, President John F. Kennedy circulated to federal agencies a memo calling for innovative ideas. The Fish and Wildlife Service biologist Ray C. Erickson ... More

Shortly after coming to office in early 1961, President John F. Kennedy circulated to federal agencies a memo calling for innovative ideas. The Fish and Wildlife Service biologist Ray C. Erickson responded with a proposal to begin captive breeding experiments with the sandhill crane, a species that was closely related to the critically endangered whooping crane but not nearly so rare. Within a few years after authoring his letter, Erickson would play a central role in establishing a new captive breeding facility for whooping cranes and other endangered species at the Fish and Wildlife Service's research station and refuge on the banks of Maryland's Patuxent River. This chapter looks at efforts to save endangered species in the age of ecology, focusing on the work of the Survival Service Commission, the International Union for the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources's Red Data Book project, and U.S. Secretary of Interior Stewart L. Udall's conservation agenda. It also examines the decline of the American alligator, spotted cats, and marine mammals and efforts to save them.Less

An Analysis of Seal, Sea Lion, and Sea Otter Consumption Patterns on Sanak Island, Alaska: An 1800–Year Record on Aleut Consumer Behavior

Veronica Lech, Matthew W. Betts, and Herbert D. C. Maschner

in Human Impacts on Seals, Sea Lions, and Sea Otters: Integrating Archaeology and Ecology in the Northeast Pacific

This chapter analyzes element and cut mark frequencies to determine the response of Aleut processing and transport strategies to variations in marine mammal abundance. It argues that during times of ... More

This chapter analyzes element and cut mark frequencies to determine the response of Aleut processing and transport strategies to variations in marine mammal abundance. It argues that during times of declining encounter rates for large-bodied marine mammals, the inhabitants of Sanak Island exploited marine mammal carcasses more intensively, an activity that should be detectable in element distributions, cut mark location, and cut mark intensity. Frequencies of marine mammal remains in the last four temporal contexts in the Sanak Island sequence appear to be linked to climatic and population shifts. This chapter focuses on the latter half of the post-Neoglacial to speculate on the relationship between climate changes and their impact on consumption strategies in marine mammals such as seals, sea lions, and sea otters. The findings illustrate the importance of investigating patterns of marine mammal transport and butchery as part of historical ecological analyses.Less