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Conclusion

Federico Varese

in The Russian Mafia: Private Protection in a New Market Economy

Some general issues concerning the Russian Mafia are addressed in this concluding chapter, which also makes a brief assessment of its future, and of its position in society.

The Mafia in Perm

Federico Varese

in The Russian Mafia: Private Protection in a New Market Economy

If mafia groups are present in a market, they must be organized in some form. Two questions have generated a heated and long-running debate among scholars of the mafias: first, are criminal groups ... More

If mafia groups are present in a market, they must be organized in some form. Two questions have generated a heated and long-running debate among scholars of the mafias: first, are criminal groups organized in a hierarchical and military fashion or, on the contrary, are they loose networks of individuals, getting together to perform a specific task; second, are these groups territorially or functionally organized? Chapter 6 addresses these two questions with reference to the city of Perm, which is in the Gulag Archipelago in the Ural region of Russia. It pieces together some elements in the history of Perm’s criminality at the time of the transition from the Soviet economic and political system to the market economy, discussing the legacy of the Gulag (in the shape of the criminal fraternity of the vory-v-zakone – thieves-with-a-code-of-honour – that flourished in the Soviet labour camps between the 1920s and the 1950s, and re-emerged in the 1970s) in relation to the contemporary criminal situation, the post-Soviet criminal groups that emerged in the city, and inter-group relations and conflicts. Lastly, it analyses the organizational arrangements (structure, size, and internal division of labour) of the mafia groups in Perm, and compares them with other gangs and mafias (principally the Sicilian Mafia or Cosa Nostra).Less

Mafia Ancestors: The Vory‐V‐Zakone, 1920s–1950s

Federico Varese

in The Russian Mafia: Private Protection in a New Market Economy

The first section of the chapter describes the main features of the original society of the vory-v-zakone – thieves-with-a-code-of-honour – the criminal fraternity that flourished in the Soviet ... More

The first section of the chapter describes the main features of the original society of the vory-v-zakone – thieves-with-a-code-of-honour – the criminal fraternity that flourished in the Soviet labour camps between the 1920s and the 1950s, and re-emerged in the 1970s. The account given is based on archival data that have not been presented before, and describes the rituals and practices involved, the vory code of behaviour, vory activities outside prison, and punishment in vory courts. The second section addresses the question of the origins of the vory-v-zakone society, namely, whether it was a Soviet or pre-Revolutionary phenomenon. It is concluded that the fraternity most likely evolved from pre-Revolutionary criminal nineteenth-century arteli (guilds) of ordinary thieves.Less

Introduction

Federico Varese

in The Russian Mafia: Private Protection in a New Market Economy

The crucial importance of property rights in the transition from a centrally planned economy to a market economy is explained as the basis for emergence of mafia groups: if trust is scarce, and the ... More

The crucial importance of property rights in the transition from a centrally planned economy to a market economy is explained as the basis for emergence of mafia groups: if trust is scarce, and the state is not able or willing to protect property rights, then there is a demand for non-state, private protection. The emergence of the Sicilian Mafia (the Cosa Nostra) is briefly described, for the study of the emergence of the Russian Mafia presented in the book is largely informed by the Sicilian case. The author explains that he treats the term ‘mafia’ as a species of a broader genus of organized crime, which is willing to offer protection to both legal and illegal transactions – although this study is mainly concerned with legal rather than illegal markets (and also does not include the role of ethnic networks as a source of protection services). The reasoning behind the choice of the city of Perm for the location of the study, the type of evidence collected there, and methods of data collection used, are outlined. A summary of the contents of each chapter of the book is also included.Less

The Russian Mafia

Federico Varese

in The Russian Mafia: Private Protection in a New Market Economy

An assessment is made of the role of the vory-v-zakone (thieves-with-a-code-of-honour – the criminal fraternity that flourished in the Soviet labour camps between the 1920s and the 1950s, and ... More

An assessment is made of the role of the vory-v-zakone (thieves-with-a-code-of-honour – the criminal fraternity that flourished in the Soviet labour camps between the 1920s and the 1950s, and re-emerged in the 1970s) in the post-Soviet criminal world. The features of the new society are described (the existence of territorial groups of vory, and their organizational structure, activities, inter-group relations, and role) and the Russian Mafia is identified as groups that share vory rituals and norms of interaction and are federated with one another. The future of the Russian Mafia is then briefly evaluated amidst the emergence of two powerful competitor groups who do not share the rituals and traditions of the vory: the Chechen Mafia and the Cossacks. The chapter concludes with a discussion of the connections between politics, the church, terrorism, and the modern criminal fraternity.Less

Mafia Transplantation

Federico Varese

in Mafias on the Move: How Organized Crime Conquers New Territories

This chapter discusses the factors that determine the success of mafia transplantation. It first sets out several theoretical insights into why mafias find it difficult to become entrenched in ... More

This chapter discusses the factors that determine the success of mafia transplantation. It first sets out several theoretical insights into why mafias find it difficult to become entrenched in foreign countries. It then discusses the conditions under which mafiosi succeed in become entrenched once they find themselves in the new territory. For some authors, the level of generalized trust (trust in others whom we do not know) in the new land is an important variable that could explain the entrenchment of mafias. The presence of a genuine demand for criminal protection, the core activity of mafias, also leads to long-term transplantation.Less

The Russian Mafia in Rome and Budapest

Federico Varese

in Mafias on the Move: How Organized Crime Conquers New Territories

The “Solntsevo fraternity” (Solntsevskaya bratva) is the mightiest organized crime group to emerge from the wreckage of the Soviet Union. Estimates of the size of the brotherhood (possibly ... More

The “Solntsevo fraternity” (Solntsevskaya bratva) is the mightiest organized crime group to emerge from the wreckage of the Soviet Union. Estimates of the size of the brotherhood (possibly exaggerated) range from five to nine thousand members. The group comprises no fewer than ten semiautonomous brigades (brigady), which operate under the umbrella name of Solntsevskaya. The Russian police claim that it controls various banks along with about a hundred small and medium-size enterprises. Although little is known of the inner workings of the group, former members have claimed that the organization is governed by a council of twelve individuals, who meet regularly in different parts of the world, often disguising their meetings as festive occasions. This chapter examines efforts by the Solntsevskaya to create subsidiaries in Rome and Budapest.Less

Mafia Origins, Transplantation, and the Paradoxes of Democracy

Federico Varese

in Mafias on the Move: How Organized Crime Conquers New Territories

This chapter outlines a general perspective of mafia emergence and transplantation, and offers some considerations on the relation between democracy and mafias. Recent studies have shown that mafias ... More

This chapter outlines a general perspective of mafia emergence and transplantation, and offers some considerations on the relation between democracy and mafias. Recent studies have shown that mafias emerge in societies that are undergoing a sudden and late transition to the market economy, lack a legal structure that reliably protects property rights or settles business disputes, and have a supply of people trained in violence who become unemployed at this specific juncture. However, not all mafias have developed during times of market transition. Mafias may well emerge within functioning market economies, and for reasons other than to ensure the protection of property rights. The best way to fight the presence of a mafia is to drain the demand for its services. It is not enough to reform the public administration or liberalize markets, or let booms go unchecked. Liberalization should be accompanied by effective measures aimed at preventing the formation of cartels in local markets and easing the effect of liberalization on the local workforce to avoid social tension.Less

The Transition to the Market

Federico Varese

in The Russian Mafia: Private Protection in a New Market Economy

An account is given of the transition from a state-run to a market economy in Russia, since the crucial argument presented in the book is that the Russian Mafia emerged as a consequence of an ... More

An account is given of the transition from a state-run to a market economy in Russia, since the crucial argument presented in the book is that the Russian Mafia emerged as a consequence of an imperfect transition. The chapter explores the extent to which the post-Soviet Russian state emerged either as an impartial protector of rights or, on the other hand, as an erratic, predatory, and non-impartial supplier of protection. The first section of the chapter looks briefly at the emergence of the legal and tax systems, and the rise in crime and corruption, and the second discusses property rights and the growing demand for protection. The last section presents the main actors involved in the transition – enterprise managers, industrial ministers, workers, and local governments and Boris Yeltsin’s reform team, and attempts to see which of these lobbies were best positioned to engage in collective action to determine some aspects of the transition, and the final outcome.Less

Mafias and the State

Peter B. E. Hill

in The Japanese Mafia: Yakuza, Law, and the State

Drawing on the work of Gambetta, Schelling, and other scholars of mafias and organized crime, this chapter establishes the theoretical framework for the remainder of the book. It is argued that the ... More

Drawing on the work of Gambetta, Schelling, and other scholars of mafias and organized crime, this chapter establishes the theoretical framework for the remainder of the book. It is argued that the central characteristic of mafias is the provision of private protection. Such protection is not necessarily bogus (extortionate) and there are a number of potential consumers of this service. The chapter explores the conditions in which the market for private protection might arise, the consumers and suppliers of this commodity, and the relationship between mafias and the state.Less

Yakuza, Law and the State

Peter B. E. Hill

in The Japanese Mafia: Yakuza, Law, and the State

The concluding chapter of this book draws these chapters together and sets them in the broader context of the state's provision of protection in Japan. The preference of the Japanese authorities for ... More

The concluding chapter of this book draws these chapters together and sets them in the broader context of the state's provision of protection in Japan. The preference of the Japanese authorities for social control processes over formal mechanisms of enforcement and dispute resolution has created a conducive environment for private protection markets. Yakuza provision of such protection has been one consequence. Current developments in the set Japan's social, legal, economic, and political relations suggest, however, that this market is under threat.Less

Mafia Associations and Ruling Bodies

Letizia Paoli

in Mafia Brotherhoods: Organized Crime, Italian Style

Since the mid-nineteenth century, numerous sources have mentioned, and sometimes described in great detail, stable mafia associations in both Sicily and Calabria. Today, members and branches of both ... More

Since the mid-nineteenth century, numerous sources have mentioned, and sometimes described in great detail, stable mafia associations in both Sicily and Calabria. Today, members and branches of both Cosa Nostra and the 'Ndrangheta can be found in numerous northern Italian centers as well as in all those foreign countries that have attracted consistent migration flows from southern Italy. The cosche composing Cosa Nostra and the 'Ndrangheta may be considered fully developed organizations, clearly distinguished from the blood families of their members, because they have ruling bodies to enforce their normative order. For many years, the power apparatuses of the single mafia families were the sole ruling bodies within the two organizations. Only in the late 1950s, in fact, did Cosa Nostra families in the Palermo province create a superordinate body of coordination: the so-called provincial commission. Despite the experiments carried out in the last four decades of the twentieth century, the ruling bodies of single families remain the real centers of mafia power, and segmentation is the prevalent form of differentiation.Less

Introduction

Letizia Paoli

in Mafia Brotherhoods: Organized Crime, Italian Style

The Sicilian Cosa Nostra and the Calabrian 'Ndrangheta have been singled out as Italy's largest and most powerful mafia associations. The mafiosi's illegal businesses and their infiltration in ... More

The Sicilian Cosa Nostra and the Calabrian 'Ndrangheta have been singled out as Italy's largest and most powerful mafia associations. The mafiosi's illegal businesses and their infiltration in legitimate industries have been targeted by criminal investigations. Analysis of the defectors' testimonies, criminal cases, and other sources shows many analogies between the most lasting and successful Italian American mafia association, Cosa Nostra, and its southern Italian counterparts, particularly the Sicilian Cosa Nostra. Just like the Sicilian Cosa Nostra, America's largest and most powerful mafia association is a loose confederation of mafia families that mutually recognize each other but are independent on most issues. The two organizations, however, differ in their internal organization and activities and their relationship with underworld competitors, civil society, politicians, and law enforcement. Cosa Nostra and the 'Ndrangheta resort systematically to violence and secrecy to defend themselves from state repression and to pursue their aims. In addition, they have a plurality of functions within their social environment.Less

Introduction

Federico Varese

in Mafias on the Move: How Organized Crime Conquers New Territories

This introductory chapter provides an overview of the book's key themes. The book examines mafias' ability to transplant in new and distant territories. Conventional wisdom suggests that organized ... More

This introductory chapter provides an overview of the book's key themes. The book examines mafias' ability to transplant in new and distant territories. Conventional wisdom suggests that organized crime migrates easily due to the spread of globalization and population migration, and criminal multinational corporations are increasingly unattached to a specific territory. According to Louise Shelley, the director of the Transnational Crime Institute in Washington, DC, “international organized crime has globalized its activities for the same reasons as legitimate multinational corporations.” Many authors argue that the notions of territorial entrenchment and control are becoming obsolete for a “Global Crime Inc.” that “transcends the sovereignty that organizes the modern state system.” The “transnational organized crime consensus” is influential among policymakers.Less

The ˋNdrangheta in Piedmont and Veneto

Federico Varese

in Mafias on the Move: How Organized Crime Conquers New Territories

This chapter focuses on the 'Ndrangheta, a loose confederation of mafia families, most of which (eighty-six) operate in the province of Reggio Calabria in southern Calabria. This mafia has ... More

This chapter focuses on the 'Ndrangheta, a loose confederation of mafia families, most of which (eighty-six) operate in the province of Reggio Calabria in southern Calabria. This mafia has systematically forced local entrepreneurs to pay protection money, corrupted officials, and penetrated politics. Politicians have been threatened, wounded, and killed, while bosses have successfully stood in local elections. In the 1990s, the Italian government disbanded eighteen city councils due to the 'Ndrangheta's ability to pervert local electoral processes. In 2007, killers from San Luca, this mafia's stronghold, murdered six people outside an Italian restaurant in Duisburg, in northwestern Germany, bringing the ruthless nature and international reach of the organization home to the European public.Less

Lessons from the Past: Sicilian Mafiosi in New York City and Rosario, circa 1880–1940

Federico Varese

in Mafias on the Move: How Organized Crime Conquers New Territories

From the mid-nineteenth century, many Sicilians, including members of the mafia, were on the move. After sketching the contours of the mafia in Sicily in the nineteenth century, this chapter outlines ... More

From the mid-nineteenth century, many Sicilians, including members of the mafia, were on the move. After sketching the contours of the mafia in Sicily in the nineteenth century, this chapter outlines the parallel history of Italian migration and mafia activities in New York City and Rosario, Argentina, and offers an analytic account of the diverging outcomes. Only in the North American city did a mafia that resembled the Sicilian one emerge. The Prohibition provided an enormous boost to both the personnel and power of Italian organized crime. The risk of punishment was low, the gains to be made were enormous, and there was no social stigma attached to this trade.Less