Hubert Heinelt, Tanja Kopp‐Malek, Jochen Lang, and Bernd Reissert
- Published in print:
- 2003
- Published Online:
- April 2004
- ISBN:
- 9780199252268
- eISBN:
- 9780191601040
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/0199252262.003.0007
- Subject:
- Political Science, European Union
Over the last decades, the European structural funds have undergone a series of wide-ranging reforms. The history of the funds, thus, does not confirm the ‘joint decision trap’ hypothesis that is ...
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Over the last decades, the European structural funds have undergone a series of wide-ranging reforms. The history of the funds, thus, does not confirm the ‘joint decision trap’ hypothesis that is often associated with policy-making in the EU multi-level system. Instead, the reforms of the structural funds can be evaluated as a success story, which calls for explanation. In contrast to some of the previous literature, empirical evidence and theoretical reasoning presented in chapter 7 show that it is difficult for the capacity for reform to be related to the existence of a closely-knit network of relevant actors in a single policy community. It is rather the ‘loose coupling’ of elements in a fragmented decision-making structure that keeps the system manageable and explains continuous reform.Less
Over the last decades, the European structural funds have undergone a series of wide-ranging reforms. The history of the funds, thus, does not confirm the ‘joint decision trap’ hypothesis that is often associated with policy-making in the EU multi-level system. Instead, the reforms of the structural funds can be evaluated as a success story, which calls for explanation. In contrast to some of the previous literature, empirical evidence and theoretical reasoning presented in chapter 7 show that it is difficult for the capacity for reform to be related to the existence of a closely-knit network of relevant actors in a single policy community. It is rather the ‘loose coupling’ of elements in a fragmented decision-making structure that keeps the system manageable and explains continuous reform.
Arndt Sorge
- Published in print:
- 2005
- Published Online:
- September 2007
- ISBN:
- 9780199278909
- eISBN:
- 9780191706820
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199278909.003.0002
- Subject:
- Business and Management, International Business
Institutions can be considered as softer or harder typifications of reciprocally understood meanings attached to social patterns. Their origin is explained by the sociology of knowledge and the ...
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Institutions can be considered as softer or harder typifications of reciprocally understood meanings attached to social patterns. Their origin is explained by the sociology of knowledge and the interactionist school of sociology. They extend to more macro institutions or structures via the duality of social action. Societal space does two things: it divides action into institutionally and functionally differentiated action systems, and it breeds coherence across action systems with segmented meanings; societal effects make any action reverberate through the differentiated texture of action systems. Action systems are thus tightly coupled although institutional domains are loosely coupled (i.e., relatively autonomous). Society invariably has many layers that may be differentiated or conflated. Internationalization blends into and is interdependent with the layered architecture of society. It implies related processes of expansion and provincialization of social horizons.Less
Institutions can be considered as softer or harder typifications of reciprocally understood meanings attached to social patterns. Their origin is explained by the sociology of knowledge and the interactionist school of sociology. They extend to more macro institutions or structures via the duality of social action. Societal space does two things: it divides action into institutionally and functionally differentiated action systems, and it breeds coherence across action systems with segmented meanings; societal effects make any action reverberate through the differentiated texture of action systems. Action systems are thus tightly coupled although institutional domains are loosely coupled (i.e., relatively autonomous). Society invariably has many layers that may be differentiated or conflated. Internationalization blends into and is interdependent with the layered architecture of society. It implies related processes of expansion and provincialization of social horizons.
Arthur Benz
- Published in print:
- 2003
- Published Online:
- April 2004
- ISBN:
- 9780199252268
- eISBN:
- 9780191601040
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/0199252262.003.0005
- Subject:
- Political Science, European Union
Chapter 5 applies the concept of compounded representation to analyse democracy in EU multi-level governance. From this analytical perspective it describes how different modes of democratic ...
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Chapter 5 applies the concept of compounded representation to analyse democracy in EU multi-level governance. From this analytical perspective it describes how different modes of democratic governance entrenched in national and European institutions, i.e. the European Parliament, the European Council and national parliaments, interfere. Based on a case study on the reform of the European structural funds, the author shows how actors tackle the problems caused by incompatible decision rules and evaluates the consequences for democracy in terms of efficiency, authentic interest representation and accountability. In this way, the chapter sheds new light on the often criticized ‘democratic deficit’ of the EU and presents proposals for its solution which lie in functional differentiation and ‘loose coupling’ of the above-mentioned representative institutions.Less
Chapter 5 applies the concept of compounded representation to analyse democracy in EU multi-level governance. From this analytical perspective it describes how different modes of democratic governance entrenched in national and European institutions, i.e. the European Parliament, the European Council and national parliaments, interfere. Based on a case study on the reform of the European structural funds, the author shows how actors tackle the problems caused by incompatible decision rules and evaluates the consequences for democracy in terms of efficiency, authentic interest representation and accountability. In this way, the chapter sheds new light on the often criticized ‘democratic deficit’ of the EU and presents proposals for its solution which lie in functional differentiation and ‘loose coupling’ of the above-mentioned representative institutions.
Klaus Eder and Hans‐Jörg Trenz
- Published in print:
- 2003
- Published Online:
- April 2004
- ISBN:
- 9780199252268
- eISBN:
- 9780191601040
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/0199252262.003.0006
- Subject:
- Political Science, European Union
Chapter 6 sets out to explain the dynamics of multi-level governance as regards the evolution of forms of public communication and the making of a European public sphere. The central theoretical ...
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Chapter 6 sets out to explain the dynamics of multi-level governance as regards the evolution of forms of public communication and the making of a European public sphere. The central theoretical concern is discussed with empirical reference to core areas of governance in the fields of justice and home affairs. So far, research has mainly taken an intergovernmentalist perspective, which fails to explain the institutional dynamics of intensifying cooperation in these fields which is slowly integrating the ‘European security community’ into an encom-passing ‘area of justice, freedom and rights’. The intergovernmentalist account neglects two significant factors: first, that governments act within an expanding transnational field made up of norms, discourses and institutions that increasingly constrain their action. Second, competitive actors within the field are more and more linked to public monitoring of their activities. Consequently, the transnational field is transformed into a public space attended by different audiences with shifting attention and expectations. The term ‘transnational resonance structures’ is introduced to account for the integration and legitimation of forms of ‘loose coupling’ between international, European and domestic politics as the organizing principle of governance in Europe.Less
Chapter 6 sets out to explain the dynamics of multi-level governance as regards the evolution of forms of public communication and the making of a European public sphere. The central theoretical concern is discussed with empirical reference to core areas of governance in the fields of justice and home affairs. So far, research has mainly taken an intergovernmentalist perspective, which fails to explain the institutional dynamics of intensifying cooperation in these fields which is slowly integrating the ‘European security community’ into an encom-passing ‘area of justice, freedom and rights’. The intergovernmentalist account neglects two significant factors: first, that governments act within an expanding transnational field made up of norms, discourses and institutions that increasingly constrain their action. Second, competitive actors within the field are more and more linked to public monitoring of their activities. Consequently, the transnational field is transformed into a public space attended by different audiences with shifting attention and expectations. The term ‘transnational resonance structures’ is introduced to account for the integration and legitimation of forms of ‘loose coupling’ between international, European and domestic politics as the organizing principle of governance in Europe.
Mukti Khaire
- Published in print:
- 2017
- Published Online:
- January 2018
- ISBN:
- 9780804792219
- eISBN:
- 9781503603080
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Stanford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.11126/stanford/9780804792219.003.0008
- Subject:
- Business and Management, Organization Studies
This chapter explores the strategies adopted by producers, who must balance financial and cultural imperatives to maintain viability and standing in both the artistic and the business worlds, each of ...
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This chapter explores the strategies adopted by producers, who must balance financial and cultural imperatives to maintain viability and standing in both the artistic and the business worlds, each of which has a different, sometimes contradictory institutional logic. Mirroring the strategies used by individual creators, producers attempt to balance both worlds by maintaining varying degrees of separation between the two worlds—blending (no separation), loose coupling or portfolio (some separation, maintained through the production of multiple product lines), and decoupling (complete separation through production of unrelated products or by adopting a not-for-profit business model). Each of these strategies is differentially appropriate for creator firms versus producer firms, and each has specific implications for pioneer producers and new producer ventures, all of which are explored.Less
This chapter explores the strategies adopted by producers, who must balance financial and cultural imperatives to maintain viability and standing in both the artistic and the business worlds, each of which has a different, sometimes contradictory institutional logic. Mirroring the strategies used by individual creators, producers attempt to balance both worlds by maintaining varying degrees of separation between the two worlds—blending (no separation), loose coupling or portfolio (some separation, maintained through the production of multiple product lines), and decoupling (complete separation through production of unrelated products or by adopting a not-for-profit business model). Each of these strategies is differentially appropriate for creator firms versus producer firms, and each has specific implications for pioneer producers and new producer ventures, all of which are explored.
Mark de Rond and Tim Hallett
- Published in print:
- 2019
- Published Online:
- August 2019
- ISBN:
- 9780198843818
- eISBN:
- 9780191879517
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/oso/9780198843818.003.0009
- Subject:
- Business and Management, Organization Studies
On December 26, 2016, several hundred people left a disused Berlin airport to walk some 2,100 miles to Aleppo as an expression of solidarity with civilians suffering in Syria while calling for an end ...
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On December 26, 2016, several hundred people left a disused Berlin airport to walk some 2,100 miles to Aleppo as an expression of solidarity with civilians suffering in Syria while calling for an end to the war. Some would stay the course for the nearly eight months it ultimately took, whereas others joined the Civil March for Aleppo for short periods. In this chapter, we explore what the march can tell us about the relation between processes and institutions by focusing on a contentious episode. When the marchers realized they might not be able to continue walking upon reaching Turkey, they had to confront a question that had never collectively been settled: Was this ultimately a march for or to Aleppo? Drawing from old, new, and inhabited institutionalism, we explore the causes and consequences of this episode and re-examine assumptions of loose and tight coupling in organizations.Less
On December 26, 2016, several hundred people left a disused Berlin airport to walk some 2,100 miles to Aleppo as an expression of solidarity with civilians suffering in Syria while calling for an end to the war. Some would stay the course for the nearly eight months it ultimately took, whereas others joined the Civil March for Aleppo for short periods. In this chapter, we explore what the march can tell us about the relation between processes and institutions by focusing on a contentious episode. When the marchers realized they might not be able to continue walking upon reaching Turkey, they had to confront a question that had never collectively been settled: Was this ultimately a march for or to Aleppo? Drawing from old, new, and inhabited institutionalism, we explore the causes and consequences of this episode and re-examine assumptions of loose and tight coupling in organizations.
Chris Ansell
Chris Ansell and Jacob Torfing (eds)
- Published in print:
- 2018
- Published Online:
- September 2018
- ISBN:
- 9781447340553
- eISBN:
- 9781447340591
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Policy Press
- DOI:
- 10.1332/policypress/9781447340553.003.0005
- Subject:
- Political Science, Comparative Politics
Global diseases require collaboration at multiple scales – from local to global. This article examines the experience of three international global public health partnerships – UNAIDS, the Stop TB ...
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Global diseases require collaboration at multiple scales – from local to global. This article examines the experience of three international global public health partnerships – UNAIDS, the Stop TB Partnership and the Roll Back Malaria Partnership. These partnerships must be understood as compound collaborations. Such collaboration can often exhibit a marked tension between loose and tight coupling. Strategically designed to be loose or flexible in order to build initial support, loose institutional arrangements can also render these partnerships ineffective. Focal institutions, however, can help to align and facilitate the contributions of different partners operating on different scales.Less
Global diseases require collaboration at multiple scales – from local to global. This article examines the experience of three international global public health partnerships – UNAIDS, the Stop TB Partnership and the Roll Back Malaria Partnership. These partnerships must be understood as compound collaborations. Such collaboration can often exhibit a marked tension between loose and tight coupling. Strategically designed to be loose or flexible in order to build initial support, loose institutional arrangements can also render these partnerships ineffective. Focal institutions, however, can help to align and facilitate the contributions of different partners operating on different scales.
Calvin Morrill and Michael Musheno
- Published in print:
- 2018
- Published Online:
- September 2018
- ISBN:
- 9780226538761
- eISBN:
- 9780226523873
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- University of Chicago Press
- DOI:
- 10.7208/chicago/9780226523873.003.0007
- Subject:
- Sociology, Education
This chapter draws on ethnographic trouble cases and other observations, in-depth interviews, and youth sketch maps from New West High School (NWHS) to examine the unanticipated consequences ...
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This chapter draws on ethnographic trouble cases and other observations, in-depth interviews, and youth sketch maps from New West High School (NWHS) to examine the unanticipated consequences associated with the implementation of safe schools, a national-level social movement championing carceral-like school discipline in the 1990s and into first decade of the twenty-first century. The chapter documents how youth language and images of trouble at NWHS changed, increasing rates of police calls, and contestation and normalization of departures from official policy. The chapter analytic regards an unprecedented episode of collective youth violence – what came to be called the “October Fight” – as an “organizational accident” lens through which to unpack the initial collective trauma experienced when formal and informal control on campus dramatically change as result of the adoption of safe schools. The chapter also examines how safe schools was normalized on campus and the loose-coupling that occurred among students and school staff between official disciplinary policies and everyday practices.Less
This chapter draws on ethnographic trouble cases and other observations, in-depth interviews, and youth sketch maps from New West High School (NWHS) to examine the unanticipated consequences associated with the implementation of safe schools, a national-level social movement championing carceral-like school discipline in the 1990s and into first decade of the twenty-first century. The chapter documents how youth language and images of trouble at NWHS changed, increasing rates of police calls, and contestation and normalization of departures from official policy. The chapter analytic regards an unprecedented episode of collective youth violence – what came to be called the “October Fight” – as an “organizational accident” lens through which to unpack the initial collective trauma experienced when formal and informal control on campus dramatically change as result of the adoption of safe schools. The chapter also examines how safe schools was normalized on campus and the loose-coupling that occurred among students and school staff between official disciplinary policies and everyday practices.
Florian Hoof
- Published in print:
- 2020
- Published Online:
- May 2020
- ISBN:
- 9780190886363
- eISBN:
- 9780190886400
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/oso/9780190886363.003.0007
- Subject:
- Literature, Film, Media, and Cultural Studies
The Conclusion sums up the key issues of the book. It characterizes media and business consulting as a historically emergent relation between loose and solid coupling. It shows how business ...
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The Conclusion sums up the key issues of the book. It characterizes media and business consulting as a historically emergent relation between loose and solid coupling. It shows how business consultants strategically use “new media” to create new services or rebrand existing offers. In the context of business consulting and management, media techniques and apparatuses function as discursive channels for factors that were until then incapable of being articulated or represented. The graphic media network translated the heterogeneous fields of management and consulting into a loose visual coupling: the basic prerequisite for the definition of generally valid concepts, and the formation of an accepted canon of managerial methods. This leads to a politics of consulting that shifts the power structures in society.Less
The Conclusion sums up the key issues of the book. It characterizes media and business consulting as a historically emergent relation between loose and solid coupling. It shows how business consultants strategically use “new media” to create new services or rebrand existing offers. In the context of business consulting and management, media techniques and apparatuses function as discursive channels for factors that were until then incapable of being articulated or represented. The graphic media network translated the heterogeneous fields of management and consulting into a loose visual coupling: the basic prerequisite for the definition of generally valid concepts, and the formation of an accepted canon of managerial methods. This leads to a politics of consulting that shifts the power structures in society.
Harold Salzman and Stephen R. Rosenthal
- Published in print:
- 1994
- Published Online:
- November 2020
- ISBN:
- 9780195083408
- eISBN:
- 9780197560471
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/oso/9780195083408.003.0016
- Subject:
- Computer Science, Human-Computer Interaction
Software design is enmeshed in the social world of organizations. Software embodies characteristics of the organizations within which and for which it is ...
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Software design is enmeshed in the social world of organizations. Software embodies characteristics of the organizations within which and for which it is created. This book has dealt with both of these dimensions; first, the social dimensions of the software design process and, second, the nature of work organizations that the user inhabits and the implications for software design. In this final chapter we develop some general propositions about social dimensions of software design and the implications of software adoption for organizational change. First we draw some concluding observations about two processes. Our research, coupled with related work of others, suggests that crucial to understanding software design (and technology design in general) are the role of history in the long life cycle of software design, especially the redesign of technology by its users, and the politics of software design. Technology design is a process with a life cycle of its own. During this process, design changes occur from the initial stage of determining user requirements through the design and development of the software and then continues during its implementation and use. In retrospect, it is possible to show how different aspects of any particular technology were established at various stages. However, it is not possible to deduce all the attributes of the technology without following the design process through implementation and ultimate use. Understanding the constraints that a technology will impose on the users’ (and the organization’s) “action space” thus requires an examination of the social as well as the technical history of its development. Organizational politics are crucial in the early phases of technology development and provide opportunities for those in positions of power in the user organization to exercise the most explicit influence. Furthermore, past technology and organizational choices form patterns that are institutionalized and form the structure shaping current technology choices (cf. Kling, 1987,1993; Thomas, 1993). Thus, the initial stages of technology definition provide partial constraints on the action of users when the technology is implemented. The late life cycle stages of design are the result of a continual process of actors interpreting and negotiating the technology design and use within structural bounds of hierarchical power, resources, authority and autonomy.
Less
Software design is enmeshed in the social world of organizations. Software embodies characteristics of the organizations within which and for which it is created. This book has dealt with both of these dimensions; first, the social dimensions of the software design process and, second, the nature of work organizations that the user inhabits and the implications for software design. In this final chapter we develop some general propositions about social dimensions of software design and the implications of software adoption for organizational change. First we draw some concluding observations about two processes. Our research, coupled with related work of others, suggests that crucial to understanding software design (and technology design in general) are the role of history in the long life cycle of software design, especially the redesign of technology by its users, and the politics of software design. Technology design is a process with a life cycle of its own. During this process, design changes occur from the initial stage of determining user requirements through the design and development of the software and then continues during its implementation and use. In retrospect, it is possible to show how different aspects of any particular technology were established at various stages. However, it is not possible to deduce all the attributes of the technology without following the design process through implementation and ultimate use. Understanding the constraints that a technology will impose on the users’ (and the organization’s) “action space” thus requires an examination of the social as well as the technical history of its development. Organizational politics are crucial in the early phases of technology development and provide opportunities for those in positions of power in the user organization to exercise the most explicit influence. Furthermore, past technology and organizational choices form patterns that are institutionalized and form the structure shaping current technology choices (cf. Kling, 1987,1993; Thomas, 1993). Thus, the initial stages of technology definition provide partial constraints on the action of users when the technology is implemented. The late life cycle stages of design are the result of a continual process of actors interpreting and negotiating the technology design and use within structural bounds of hierarchical power, resources, authority and autonomy.
Harold Salzman and Stephen R. Rosenthal
- Published in print:
- 1994
- Published Online:
- November 2020
- ISBN:
- 9780195083408
- eISBN:
- 9780197560471
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/oso/9780195083408.003.0013
- Subject:
- Computer Science, Human-Computer Interaction
Social choices characterize applications software design as much as technical engineering issues. In examining software design as a social process we have ...
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Social choices characterize applications software design as much as technical engineering issues. In examining software design as a social process we have identified as important issues the tradeoffs and compromises among competing interests and objectives of users and of others in the user organization, the process by which decisions of designers are shaped by their organization, and the role of various pressures in the market. The chapters in Part I explained and justified our basic premise that the interplay of such factors would significantly influence both explicit and implicit design choices. We emphasized how software designs necessarily reflect organizational choices about objectives of different users and others in both the vendor and user organizations. Then in Part II, for each of the cases we studied, we identified a range of design influences and the specific values underlying the social shaping of particular software features and functions. This chapter considers what we have learned from our several case studies and survey. The final two chapters translate these findings into an action agenda for managers (Chapter 8) and consider the implications for research in this area (Chapter 9). Crucial design choices about software that regulates operations of the user organization reflect social choices that may not necessarily be optimal choices. In fact, we found that for many choices there may not be an objectively optimal design; rather, the choices will favor some objectives over others with decisions shaped by organizational politics for example. Indeed, by providing greater integration within the organization, software systems lead to tighter “coupling” of structures in organizations, among different groups and between formal policies and informal practices. The following discussion of the three industries, banking, field service, and hospitals, focuses on the consequences of different choices in software design. The software, as part of its substantive task (e.g., storing information), was designed to automate and control procedures by formalizing them in design, emphasizing managerial control objectives over operations objectives, as it integrated the work of functionally different groups. This emphasis can be traced to the initial choices about features and functions of the software.
Less
Social choices characterize applications software design as much as technical engineering issues. In examining software design as a social process we have identified as important issues the tradeoffs and compromises among competing interests and objectives of users and of others in the user organization, the process by which decisions of designers are shaped by their organization, and the role of various pressures in the market. The chapters in Part I explained and justified our basic premise that the interplay of such factors would significantly influence both explicit and implicit design choices. We emphasized how software designs necessarily reflect organizational choices about objectives of different users and others in both the vendor and user organizations. Then in Part II, for each of the cases we studied, we identified a range of design influences and the specific values underlying the social shaping of particular software features and functions. This chapter considers what we have learned from our several case studies and survey. The final two chapters translate these findings into an action agenda for managers (Chapter 8) and consider the implications for research in this area (Chapter 9). Crucial design choices about software that regulates operations of the user organization reflect social choices that may not necessarily be optimal choices. In fact, we found that for many choices there may not be an objectively optimal design; rather, the choices will favor some objectives over others with decisions shaped by organizational politics for example. Indeed, by providing greater integration within the organization, software systems lead to tighter “coupling” of structures in organizations, among different groups and between formal policies and informal practices. The following discussion of the three industries, banking, field service, and hospitals, focuses on the consequences of different choices in software design. The software, as part of its substantive task (e.g., storing information), was designed to automate and control procedures by formalizing them in design, emphasizing managerial control objectives over operations objectives, as it integrated the work of functionally different groups. This emphasis can be traced to the initial choices about features and functions of the software.
Arthur Benz
- Published in print:
- 2016
- Published Online:
- September 2016
- ISBN:
- 9780198786078
- eISBN:
- 9780191827754
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780198786078.003.0007
- Subject:
- Political Science, Comparative Politics
Chapter 7 systematically compares the cases following the theoretical framework presented in Chapter 2. Moreover, alternative explanations focusing on policy problems, change in government, the party ...
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Chapter 7 systematically compares the cases following the theoretical framework presented in Chapter 2. Moreover, alternative explanations focusing on policy problems, change in government, the party system or time pressure are taken into consideration. While alternative theories should not be discarded, the research results support the theory presented in Chapter 2. Accordingly, the comparative study confirms that constitutional policy in multilevel government can lead to a stable and flexible balance of power between the constituent units. The research results also show that the design of constitutional policy can improve the probability for effective constitutional change. Negotiations in distinct, loosely coupled arenas and an appropriate sequencing of the process provide conditions for making a multilevel system robust.Less
Chapter 7 systematically compares the cases following the theoretical framework presented in Chapter 2. Moreover, alternative explanations focusing on policy problems, change in government, the party system or time pressure are taken into consideration. While alternative theories should not be discarded, the research results support the theory presented in Chapter 2. Accordingly, the comparative study confirms that constitutional policy in multilevel government can lead to a stable and flexible balance of power between the constituent units. The research results also show that the design of constitutional policy can improve the probability for effective constitutional change. Negotiations in distinct, loosely coupled arenas and an appropriate sequencing of the process provide conditions for making a multilevel system robust.
Harold Salzman and Stephen R. Rosenthal
- Published in print:
- 1994
- Published Online:
- November 2020
- ISBN:
- 9780195083408
- eISBN:
- 9780197560471
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/oso/9780195083408.003.0007
- Subject:
- Computer Science, Human-Computer Interaction
“The Workplace” conjures up images of cavernous factories where people stand shoulder-to-shoulder, dwarfed by huge machines. Though probably a popular ...
More
“The Workplace” conjures up images of cavernous factories where people stand shoulder-to-shoulder, dwarfed by huge machines. Though probably a popular image, it describes the conditions of work for less than 15 percent of the working population. Instead, a greater number of people find themselves face-to-face with a computer monitor, whose small displays they depend on for conducting their work. The computer has come to be an intermediary as we do our work. The keyboard, replacing various tools of the trade, has become the common instrument of work, not just in services but also in manufacturing. Work now involves sending instructions to various machines that perform the required tasks, whether retrieving data or turning lathes. Within organizations it has also distanced supervision. Instead of the boss breathing down the worker’s neck, “objective” data on performance are collected and reviewed remotely, at a supervisor’s pleasure and leisure. The mediation of work and regulation of the workplace through use of computer software raises anew central questions about how work should be organized and how the design of software dynamically shapes and reflects the structure of the workplace. New software systems (which expanded, in part, because of new hardware technology) not only dramatically increase the use of information, but also change the structure and working conditions of organizations. The “conversations and connections” that constitute an organization or business are “embodied in the structure of the computer system,” according to Winograd and Flores (1986, p. 169), and thus software design is also the design of the user organization. Depending upon the choices made, computer systems can “reduce the space of possibilities open to workers in organizing their activities” or they can generate new possibilities. In this respect, software is increasingly significant in its effects as it has become an important “process technology” throughout the advanced industrial economies of the world. Until recent years, software was an adjunct technology for most organizations. It was used for a limited set of organizational functions and one or two specific departments were its only direct users. It was commonly viewed as a technology subsidiary to hardware, providing support functions rather than crucial operations for achieving the organization’s goals.
Less
“The Workplace” conjures up images of cavernous factories where people stand shoulder-to-shoulder, dwarfed by huge machines. Though probably a popular image, it describes the conditions of work for less than 15 percent of the working population. Instead, a greater number of people find themselves face-to-face with a computer monitor, whose small displays they depend on for conducting their work. The computer has come to be an intermediary as we do our work. The keyboard, replacing various tools of the trade, has become the common instrument of work, not just in services but also in manufacturing. Work now involves sending instructions to various machines that perform the required tasks, whether retrieving data or turning lathes. Within organizations it has also distanced supervision. Instead of the boss breathing down the worker’s neck, “objective” data on performance are collected and reviewed remotely, at a supervisor’s pleasure and leisure. The mediation of work and regulation of the workplace through use of computer software raises anew central questions about how work should be organized and how the design of software dynamically shapes and reflects the structure of the workplace. New software systems (which expanded, in part, because of new hardware technology) not only dramatically increase the use of information, but also change the structure and working conditions of organizations. The “conversations and connections” that constitute an organization or business are “embodied in the structure of the computer system,” according to Winograd and Flores (1986, p. 169), and thus software design is also the design of the user organization. Depending upon the choices made, computer systems can “reduce the space of possibilities open to workers in organizing their activities” or they can generate new possibilities. In this respect, software is increasingly significant in its effects as it has become an important “process technology” throughout the advanced industrial economies of the world. Until recent years, software was an adjunct technology for most organizations. It was used for a limited set of organizational functions and one or two specific departments were its only direct users. It was commonly viewed as a technology subsidiary to hardware, providing support functions rather than crucial operations for achieving the organization’s goals.