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The chapter is based on interviews with formerly hidden children and is illustrated by numerous quotes. It describes various responses to the wearing of the yellow star and the desperate search for hiding places that follows the sudden and brutal roundups of the Jewish population in the summer of 1942. Life in the convents in which the children are hidden is detailed through the reactions of the children to prayers, baptism, confession, and communion. These reactions vary greatly from resistance to acceptance; remnants of Judaism persist for some. New attitudes to the body considered as shameful are learned, and lice fought, hunger endured, native language and identity concealed. Relationships with priests and nuns range from caring, tender, and maternal to cruel and punishing. In the aftermath of the liberation, the impact of Catholic institutions varies; many hidden children return to their Jewish identity and a few remain converted. The children face great difficulties due to the ravages in their families, and gender differences in opportunities offered to orphans are resented to this day.

The prevalence of human pathogens may be determined in part by microbial interactions within vectors. Ticks represent the primary source of vector-borne infections disease in the United States and carry more human pathogens than any other arthropod. This chapter explores the use of molecular genetic methods to examine microbial community structure in several common tick species to test the direction and strength of microbial interactions. Microbial interactions are explored via epidemiological models to see whether they affect pathogen prevalence and disease incidence. The results are generally applicable to a wide range of arthropod vectors of disease such as mosquitoes, fleas, and lice, and provide a better understanding of how microbial community ecology affects disease dynamics.

The prevalence of human pathogens may be determined in part by microbial interactions within vectors. Ticks represent the primary source of vector-borne infections disease in the United States and carry more human pathogens than any other arthropod. This chapter explores the use of molecular genetic methods to examine microbial community structure in several common tick species to test the direction and strength of microbial interactions. Microbial interactions are explored via epidemiological models to see whether they affect pathogen prevalence and disease incidence. The results are generally applicable to a wide range of arthropod vectors of disease such as mosquitoes,fleas, and lice, and provide a better understanding of how microbial community ecology affects disease dynamics.

This chapter discusses various mechanical designs for STM and AFM. The central piece of the mechanical design of STM and AFM is the course positioner. Therefore, various types of course positioners are also discussed. The louse and the pocket-size STM are discussed first. It is of significant historical importance but no longer popular today. The single-tube STM has a very simple mechanical structure, and still the basis of the most popular commercial STM and AFM. The Besocke-type or the beetles is very popular among builders of special-purpose STM due its immunity to temperature variation and vibration. For STM requiring superb stability, the walker and the kangaroo are the preferred design. The commercial nanostepper, the Inchworm, is described. It has been successfully used by many designers of special-purpose STM.

Delousing became routine during World War I, as a result of the recent discovery that lice spread typhus. In Nazi Germany, ethnic undesirables were stigmatized as human vermin and as poisoning the Aryan race. Bacteriologists gave scientific precision to the concept of the parasite by associating Jews with lice as carriers of the typhus germ. The Germans, who themselves were terrified by the prospect of epidemics, exploited the fear of disease to advance their strategy of establishing racial hegemony. The cruel fiction that the crematoria of Auschwitz were for delousing raises the question as to how the medical eradication of parasites was linked to genocide. The determination to transcend not only the sickness but also the exterminatory conditions of the camps revealed by survivors' testimonies contrasted with the objective medical view of rampant infections. Persons considered as infected or as carriers of infected lice were subjected to brutal sanitary procedures of delousing, disinfection, and quarantine. The responses to typhus in the Holocaust derived from a broader hygienic paradigm.

In July 1941, Adolf Hitler declared the Jews as the ‘ferment of social decay’ and boasted that he had discovered how the ‘Jewish race’ as a ‘bacillus’, ‘virus’, ‘toxin’, or consumptive ‘parasite’ poisoned and infected Nazi Germany's body politic. Convinced that infectiousness was an attribute of Jewish racial inferiority, the lethal threat of the Jewish pathogens justified resort to a strong antidote: Hitler prescribed the elimination of ‘Jewish bacteria’ to revive the vitality of the Aryan race. The Nazi war machine mobilized tropical medicine and bacteriology to provide a shield of immunity against lethal diseases in the east. Hitler's sense of continuing the legacy of Robert Koch's bacteriological breakthroughs was consistent with camouflaging genocide by means of the terminology and technologies of disinfection. Expertise in hygiene and liberal notions of social reform facilitated the development of the lethal trinity of showers, crematoria, and poison gas chambers to sweep away lice and other insect pests.

Armed with the discovery that the louse was the carrier of typhus, Nazi Germany's military hygienists set out to ameliorate the squalid conditions in the trenches on the Western Front during World War I. They built up defences against incursions by rats, lice, and mosquitoes, and derided North African French troops as typhus carriers. The confrontation with alien species of disease carriers led to draconian delousing of civilians and racial stigmatization; in the Near East, German hygiene experts came to the threshold of genocide. The network of hygiene institutes was rapidly mobilized for strategic tasks. The shock of encountering typhus in Serbia forced the disease onto the Allies' medical agenda. But two elements were distinctive on the German side — the German interest in the use of poison gas for delousing and mounting racial prejudice against the Polish Jews. Typhus worsened as the military situation deterioriated, and medical animosity against the eastern Jews — derided as treacherous vermin — intensified. Epidemics provided a pretext for genocide.

Confident in an imminent German victory in 1918, Prussia's medical department planned elaborate sanitary measures on the extended frontiers. The returning troops and civilians were to undergo a rigorous medical regime of smallpox vaccination, delousing, disinfection of clothing and possessions, and twenty-eight days' quarantine at a border station, followed by medical examination for tuberculosis and sexually transmitted diseases on arrival at their final destination. Demobilization, the realignment of borders, and population transfers generated immense sanitary upheavals. German bacteriologists accused the Poles of destroying the German epidemiological defences, and of mounting a crude form of human biological warfare — by deporting ethnic Germans who were infected with typhus into Germany without any effort to delouse them. After World War I, hydrocyanic acid gas was deployed for pest control. Cremation and Zyklon gas were components of a new state-regulated and technological approach to public health, which conserved natural and financial resources.

Developing a typhus vaccine was to boost Germany's medical and racial defences. Given that typhus was a primitive ‘Asiatic’ disease spread by racial vermin, an effective vaccine was required to protect the German invasion forces, and to prevent the disease spilling over from ghettos and concentration camps. Typhus vaccines supplemented Zyklon delousing, and their production involved human experiments in concentration camps and establishing vaccine factories with louse feeders in the occupied east. Vaccines became caught up in medical genocide, and German pharmaceutical and medical researchers were accused of instigating experiments involving the deliberate infection and death of several hundred prisoners. Cooperation and exchanges of information were facilitated by the permeable divide between Vichy and occupied France, and by United States neutrality until 1941. German and US relief teams competed to test vaccines in neutral Spain. Whereas the United States used volunteers who had consented to their role as experimental guinea pigs, Germany deliberately infected and killed experimental victims.

Cophylogenetic patterns are central to the study of coevolution in the broad sense because they document codiversification, which is the correlated diversification of interacting lineages. In the last chapter, the macroevolutionary events that govern the cophylogenetic dynamics of codiversifying groups were reviewed. Given the complexity of these processes, it can be difficult to identify ecological or other factors influencing macroevolutionary events and cophylogenetic processes. Comparisons of related groups of organisms can be very helpful. This comparative approach has the power to pinpoint ecological or other differences between groups that may be responsible for different patterns of codiversification. In this chapter, the comparative approach is applied to groups of lice with different cophylogenetic histories. These case studies illustrate some of the ways in which to integrate cophylogenetic analyses with ecological data. They also illustrate the importance of understanding the basic natural history of the system being studied.

It is essential that everyone who provides dental care for children has an understanding of other factors that affect children’s lives. This includes non-dental aspects of their health and wider issues that affect children’s development and well-being. Child maltreatment is one such issue. Abuse and neglect are forms of maltreatment of a child. Child maltreatment involves acts of commission or omission which result in harm to a child. When health professionals work with others to take action to protect children who are suffering, or are at risk of suffering, significant harm as a result of maltreatment, this is known as ‘child protection’. Child protection sits within the context of a wider agenda to ‘safeguard’ children. Safeguarding measures are actions taken to minimize the risks of harm to children and young people. These include: • protecting children from maltreatment • preventing impairment of children’s health or development • ensuring that children are growing up in a safe and caring environment. This should enable children to have optimal life chances and to enter adulthood successfully. The foundation for the success of such work is an acceptance and understanding of children’s internationally agreed human rights. In this context the term ‘child’ includes children and young people up to the age of 18. Violence towards children has been noted between cultures and at different times within the same culture since early civilization. Infanticide has been documented in almost every culture, and ritualistic killing, maiming, and severe punishment of children in an attempt to educate them, exploit them, or rid them of evil spirits has been reported since early times. Ritualistic surgery or mutilation of children has been recorded as part of religious and ethnic traditions. In the seventeenth century values started to change and incest was seen as a crime under church law, but until the eighteenth century society viewed children as possessions of their parents who were at liberty to treat them in any way they wished. In fact, legislation to protect animals was introduced before children were afforded the same ‘privilege’.

A parasite is an organism that lives on or in a host and gets its food from or at the expense of its host. Worms or helminths either live as parasites or free of a host in aquatic and terrestrial environments. Parasites and worms are found worldwide but mainly in the tropics. It is estimated that 20% of immigrants from endemic countries may have helminthic infections at their arrival to the UK. These people could be asymptomatic, but tend to present with unexplained symptoms, especially gastrointestinal in nature or eosinophilia. Travellers to endemic countries tend to be newly infected and have greater immune response and pronounced eosinophilia in some but not all parasitic infections. Parasites that can cause disease in humans fall under three classes: protozoa, helminths, and Ectoparasites Protozoa are microscopic, one- celled organisms that can be free living or parasitic in nature. Transmission of protozoa that live in a human’s intestine to another human typically occurs through a faeco-oral route (for example, contaminated food or water, or person- to-person contact). Protozoa that live in the blood or tissue of humans are transmitted to other humans by an arthropod vector (for example, through the bite of a mosquito or sand fly). Helminths are large, multicellular organisms that are generally visible to the naked eye in their adult stages. Like protozoa, helminths can be either free living or parasitic. There are three main groups of helminths that parasitize humans: cestodes, trematodes, and nematodes. These are flat worms that comprise Echinococcus species: intestinal tapeworms and neurocysticercosis (Taenia solium) These are leaf- shaped, and they vary in length from a few millimetres to 8 cm. They include: ■ Liver fluke: Clonorchis sinensis, Fasciola hepatica ■ Intestinal fluke: Fasciola buski, Heterophyes heterophyes, ■ Lung fluke: Paragonimus westernmani ■ Blood flukes: Schistosoma species These are cylindrical in structure. Blood- sucking arthropods such as mosquitoes are considered as ectoparasites because they depend on blood meal for their survival. Narrowly speaking, ectoparasites include organisms like ticks, fleas, lice, and mites (scabies) that attach or burrow into the skin and remain there for relatively long periods of time (e.g. weeks to months).

The aim of this chapter is to provide nurses with the knowledge to be able to assess, manage, and care for people with skin conditions in an evidence-based and person-centred way. The chapter will provide a comprehensive overview of the commonest skin diseases and their causes before exploring best practice to assess and help patients to manage skin conditions. Nursing priorities are highlighted throughout, and the nursing management of the symptoms and common health problems associated with skin conditions can be found in Chapters 19, 20, 21, 24, 27, and 28 on skin care and the maintenance of skin hygiene, skin barrier integrity, the prevention of skin breakdown, and wound management, respectively. Skin care is a fundamental area of nursing responsibility. The skin, or integumentary system, is the largest organ of the body and has significant protective and thermoregulatory functions. Skin disease is common, accounting for approximately 24% of GP visits (Schofield et al., 2009). It may have a major psychosocial impact on a person’s quality of life through its influence on appearance, body image, and self-esteem. This chapter introduces you to the common skin diseases that you are likely to encounter when caring for adult patients and outlines the nursing problems that you will need to manage. The cause or aetiology of common skin conditions lies with the interaction between genetic and environmental factors. For example, a child’s eczema is influenced by his or her genotype and his or her exposure to environmental allergens. Within the UK population, 23–25% have a skin problem at some time in their lives that can benefit from medical care (Schofield et al., 2009). Skin problems are the commonest reason for consulting a GP, with 6% referred for specialist advice. As such, all registered nurses should have the knowledge and skills to manage the common conditions. The commonest skin conditions in the Western hemisphere are chronic inflammatory skin diseases (CISDs), such as eczema. In developing countries, the common conditions are infections and infestations. The quality-of-life impact of CISDs can exceed that for life-threatening conditions such as cancer (Rapp et al., 1999; Kingman, 2005).

By late July most Union and Confederate units settled into static, fortified positions just outside Atlanta and something like siege conditions became the norm. The lines were subject to almost constant artillery bombardment and skirmishing and sniping fire. The Federals especially were aggressive in their skirmishing, pushing Confederate skirmishers back to their main line in many places and dominating no-man’s land. Sherman organized a concentrated effort to bombard the city with heavy artillery, disrupting Confederate supply efforts, demoralizing soldiers and civilians alike, and destroying military and civilian structures in Atlanta. Living in trenches for weeks at a time, soldier life became more stressful, dirty, and wearisome. Lice became a problem along with the difficulty of finding adequate sources of water for cooking and cleanliness. .

This chapter considers Mormon theological views of Indians and their initial missionary efforts toward Native Americans. It then traces the three key ways in which Mormons were conflated with Indians up through 1847. They were accused of conspiring with Indians, marrying among Indians, and becoming Indians. This chapter also examines the origins of the phrase “nits make lice” and how the thinking behind it was passed down from generation to generation and finally used to justify slaughter of the Mormon “other.” Some of the same race-based slander used in justifying Indian removal and extermination was also used to justify tainting Mormons with the mark of “redness.”

This chapter shows how lice shaped the feeling of captivity in Civil War prisons. The organizing idea—non-human historical agents are significant to human history—is common in animal histories; however, it is often missing from scholarship on the Civil War era. Yet lice mattered to Civil War prisoners. Initial feelings of lice assaulted prisoners' conceptions of themselves as civilized men. Over time, the inescapability of prison lice and other vermin pushed prisoners to soften antebellum prejudices against these insects—and people infested with them. It also led to the popularization of public self-care performances of delousing that projected hygiene in unclean environments. Reimagining the louse as a participant, a trickster of sorts, reveals a new historical force and exemplifies the importance of looking beyond the human/nonhuman divide. Lice first made prisoners cringe, then laugh, and this should make historians think about what was lost and gained in the process.