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This chapter focuses on social learning strategies—functional rules specifying what, when, and who to copy. There are many plausible social learning strategies. Individuals might disproportionately copy when asocial learning would be difficult or costly, when they are uncertain of what to do, when the environment changes, when established behavior proves unproductive, and so forth. Likewise, animals might preferentially copy the dominant individual, the most successful individual, or a close relative. This chapter presents evidence for some of the better-studied learning heuristics and describes statistical procedures for identifying which social learning strategies are being deployed in a data set. It examines “who” strategies, which cover frequency-dependent biases, success biases, and kin and age biases, as well as “what” strategies, random copying, and statistical methods for detecting social learning strategies. Finally, it evaluates meta-strategies, best strategies, and hierarchical control.

This chapter focuses on the development of autonomous or independent learners through IT-mediated support. It provides a critical review of the research literature regarding learners' use of digital learning strategies. The authors examine how such strategies interact with more traditional learning strategies, while at the same time focusing on the effects such digital learning strategies can have on the process of learning to read in a second language.

This concluding chapter summarizes the different social learning concepts and methods explored in the book, beginning with definitions of some key terms such as social learning, social transmission, imitation, and innovation. The book has discussed the history of social learning research, methods for studying social learning in the laboratory, social learning mechanisms, statistical methods for diffusion data, repertoire-based data, and developmental approaches. It has also examined social learning strategies and some of the mathematical models that can be applied to investigate social learning, cultural evolution, and gene-culture coevolution. A key emphasis throughout the book has been that mathematical and statistical modeling is at its most powerful when tightly integrated with empirical research.

The Learning Cube is a simple diagnostic tool that can be used to analyze and evaluate training programs. It comprises three dimensions: (1) abstraction-concreteness; (2) direction-autonomy; (3) individual-interactive. The Learning Cube is presented in outline, with a description of its dimensions and their meanings. Action learning, which encourages the learner and the trainer to share responsibility for developing a suitable learning strategy, is characterized by a combination of concreteness, autonomy, and interaction. This was the philosophy of the China-EEC Management Program (CEMP) initiated in 1984, which contrasted with traditional Chinese views of knowledge transfer. The CEMP situation is assessed in terms of the Learning Cube, and suggestions for reconciling action learning with traditional Chinese values and skills are presented.

In traditional theory, the nationality of an enterprise shouldn't matter to economic development. Whether a firm is a foreign-owned subsidiary of a multinational (FOE), or a private nationally owned enterprise in the developing world (POE), development will be the same so long as markets are perfect. However, this is no longer the case in markets that are monopolistic. Firms incorporate specific forms of knowledge and the location of ownership contributes to determine technological and production strategies. In these circumstances, the nationality of ownership does matter. Whether a developing economy is dominated by FOEs or POEs, its mid-tech or (mature) high-tech sectors affect the rates of learning and expansion of productive capacity. In fact, the chapter argues that crowding out of POEs by FOEs in such industries is not development friendly.

This chapter discusses the activities and development of toddler Ricky when he was 15–16 months old. At this stage Ricky was able to use imitation as a learning device. He was able to use this learning strategy to hold conversation. This chapter suggests that imitation is an effective means for toddlers to stay in verbal contact with others, just like verbal signalling. Thus, Ricky can be considered to be doing a lot with a little.

Cultural evolution is a diverse field of research, but some similarities can be found: cultural evolutionists defend a quantitative, naturalistic, and interdisciplinary approach to the study of human culture. Importantly, cultural evolutionists are committed to develop sound hypotheses about the individual psychology that drives our cultural behavior. Although there are different nuances, a common idea is that human cognition is specialized for processing social interactions, communication, and learning from others. From an evolutionary point of view, the cognitive mechanisms involved should produce, on average, adaptive outcomes. From this perspective, social learning strategies (a series of relatively simple, general-domain, heuristics to choose when, what, and from whom to copy) provide a first boundary to indiscriminate social influence. I critically examine the concept of social learning strategies, and I discuss how cultural evolutionists may have overestimated both the effect of social influence and, possibly, our reliance of social learning itself. I also discuss the perspective from epistemic vigilance theory, which gives more weight to the possibility of explicit deception, and proposes that we apply sophisticated cognitive operations when deciding whether to trust information coming from others.

Ensuring inclusive, equitable, and quality education for all, including those with disabilities, is one of the Sustainable Development Goals to which Kenya has subscribed. The special education policy in Kenya specifically advocates for early assessment and intervention, appropriate adaptation and differentiation of the curricula, use of relevant pedagogical approaches, adequate and relevant educational resources, and accessible classroom communication for learners with diverse needs. Nonetheless, the education of deaf and hard-of-hearing learners in Kenya faces challenges, such as societal myths, barriers to curricular access, teacher incompetence in the language of instruction, and low expectations. Some members of the Deaf community remain apprehensive about the global trend toward inclusive education. The prospect of education of the deaf and hard-of-hearing learners in Kenya is bright, however, considering where the country has come from. Some issues that still need to be addressed are mentioned in this chapter.

This chapter argues that media education after the-media would be formed out of a flattened cultural hierarchy combined with a relativist pedagogy. This would arise out of the death of Media Studies as we know it but also the death of English, Art, Drama and all other 'subjects of text'. These will be replaced with a more reflexive pedagogy of the texture of mediated life. Doing Text means one removes 'the-media' from their field of reference and work instead on the-mediated storytelling of the self and their students' performative textual interactions across spaces and places. This volume provides teachers of Media, English, and other textual curricular with a set of interdisciplinary learning and teaching strategies for what might be called 'new pedagogies'.

This chapter examines the interface of cognitive and social factors in the spread of early Christianity. The first part of the chapter discusses how early Christian preferences for itinerancy, the inclusion of women and the practice of charity shaped the social networks of the movement and how the new network structures influenced the spread of ideas. The second part of the chapter addresses the philosophy of computer modeling and introduces the programming language NetLogo. The final part of the chapter presents a simple computer model of the growth of Christianity, and shows how experimentation with the model leads to interesting insights about the spread of the Christian movement, including the role of itinerancy and the significance of learning strategies.

This chapter assesses how non-profit private providers can positively contribute to upholding the right to education by looking at the following: the equality of individuals; overcoming the legacies of racism, sexism, and colonialism; pedagogical innovations; and collaborative and cost-effective investment in education. Re-imagining education provision is essential for realising the equal right to education for all children. Education initiatives at the margins have found ways to empower, innovate, and re-imagine existing educational paradigms to better fit the lives and aspirations of those who have been excluded from formal education systems, from disadvantaged groups to poor communities. These systems have the ability to imagine and implement innovative learning strategies where states either lack the vision or the political will or capacity to implement those initiatives.

When adults talk about reading history, most of us think of a range of history- related texts: historical fiction, periodicals, biographies, diaries, documents, reports, and documentaries. Yet, when I talk with students about reading history, they immediately talk about reading history textbooks. This leads me to believe that our task as teachers is twofold: expanding the range of reading that students define as reading history and increasing students’ ability to comprehend that range of texts—including their textbooks. Much of the comprehension support we provide during reading is focused on helping students negotiate a range of texts. For many students, obstacles to comprehension occur when they are presented with a diverse range of text types. Several aspects are involved in supporting students’ comprehension in reading history, because comprehension is always a complex issue. Nagy highlights the complexity of comprehension with this statement in Teaching Vocabulary to Improve Reading Comprehension: “Reading comprehension depends on a wealth of encyclopedic knowledge and not merely on definitional knowledge of the words in the text” (1988, 7). While lists of vocabulary words are often introduced to students prior to assigning reading, it is clear that comprehending reading assignments is about more than defining words. In order for students to comprehend the diverse types of texts they encounter in reading history, they must know how to use and when to employ a wide range of independent reading strategies. Those challenges to comprehension include, but are not limited to, the following text-related reading issues:… • Diverse levels of readability are represented in a single text. • Texts present multiple concepts in a short amount of space (concept density). • Knowledge on how to use text supports to support reading is lacking. • Ability to break the language code (specialized vocabulary) is required. • Comprehension is predicated on significant background knowledge. • Sophisticated study/memory techniques have to be employed to organize and retain information. • Monitoring techniques have to be employed so important concepts aren’t missed. • Knowledge of what supplemental resources (atlas, map, almanac) can provide is necessary. • Knowledge of how to read supplemental resources is required. • Texts may not hold or capture reader’s interest so readers must be selfmotivated. • Multiple texts must be held in memory for comparison, contrast, and discovery of patterns.

Theories and ideologies of museum culture are collaboratively created by directors, curators, artists, and their audiences. This book examines these processes through the frameworks of five transformational nodes and dialogues with artists and curators. Based on these materials, nine guideposts emerge: creating transparency in curatorial networks; expanding south-north connections and exchanges; (3) reworking and blending artistic genre classifications; marketing and permeability of artworks; connecting museums with other multicultural institutions and frameworks; linking public and private collections; reconfiguring archives and databases; developing new museum learning strategies; and opening up new avenues of connectivity with diverse communities. By adopting and following these strategies, museums may display new works, showcase changing curatorial directions, and attract broader museum audiences.

Etta Gravely (Fig. 3.1) is a retired professor of chemistry and former head of the Department of Chemistry at North Carolina A&T State University at Greensboro (North Carolina A&T). Etta was born on August 30, 1939, in Alamance County, NC. Now the town of Green Level, it was then a rural community near Burlington. Most of the people there farmed, raising tobacco. Everyone had private gardens and Etta’s grandmother canned their food. The area where she went to school is still very rural; the school building is now the town hall. Etta’s mother was Kate Lee McBroom and her father Rufus Leith. Her mother, a homemaker, did general house cleaning for families. Her father had a high school degree, had served in the army during World War II, and worked as an orderly in a hospital. Etta is the only child of her mother, but her father had a son named Frederick Leith. Her brother went to Graham Central high school and upon graduation went into the army and subsequently died. Etta did not go to kindergarten because there was none. She started school in the first grade in a four-room school that had classes for grades one and two, three and four, five and six, and seven and eight. The principal was Mrs. Mary Holne, and there were three other teachers, each teaching two grades. Since Etta loved to read and liked to do school work, she skipped fourth grade and went on to fifth grade: fourth and third grade were taught in the same room, and when she completed her third- grade work she would do fourth-grade work. Her teachers probably had bachelor’s or master’s degrees in their subjects. Both Etta’s school and community were segregated; she went to school in 1945, before the Brown vs. Board of Education act, which was Supreme Court decision. When Etta graduated from the country school, she was bused to Pleasant Grove High School—for African American students, five miles from the high school for white students. The school taught grades one through twelve; the curriculum was the usual reading, writing, and arithmetic.