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Nimble Fingers No Longer! Women's Employment in Iran

Roksana Bahramitash and Hadi Salehi Esfahani

in Contemporary Iran: Economy, Society, Politics

This chapter reexamines the evolution of women's labor force participation (LFP) and employment in Iran in light of census data from the latter half of the 20th century, roughly 1956 to 2006. It ... More

This chapter reexamines the evolution of women's labor force participation (LFP) and employment in Iran in light of census data from the latter half of the 20th century, roughly 1956 to 2006. It begins by reviewing the economic performance of Iran since the 1950s. It then examines the aggregate trends in women's LFP and employment. It considers the sectoral pattern of female employment and analyzes the role of age structure and education, and deals with trends in women's occupations and positions in the labor market. The chapter concludes with a discussion of likely opportunities and challenges for Iranian women in the coming decades.Less

Gender Role Attitudes since 1972: Are Southerners Distinctive?

Karen E. Campbell and Peter V. Marsden

in Social Trends in American Life: Findings from the General Social Survey since 1972

Several previous General Social Survey-based studies have revealed increasing acceptance of nontraditional gender roles. This chapter builds upon and extends these findings. It shows that adults ... More

Several previous General Social Survey-based studies have revealed increasing acceptance of nontraditional gender roles. This chapter builds upon and extends these findings. It shows that adults became less predisposed toward a “separate spheres” conception holding that women should specialize in caring for children and households while men predominate in the more public arenas of employment and politics. Most growth in acceptance of broadened women's roles took place by the mid-1990s, however, mirroring trends in women's labor force participation and their representation in political office. The chapter then illustrates the regional convergence noted by Fischer and Hout (2006), showing that southerners continue to espouse more traditional views about gender, but less so over time.Less

Women Working Longer: Facts and Some Explanations

Claudia Goldin and Lawrence F. Katz

in Women Working Longer: Increased Employment at Older Ages

American women are working more, through their sixties and even into their seventies. Their increased participation at older ages started in the late 1980s before the turnaround in older men’s labor ... More

American women are working more, through their sixties and even into their seventies. Their increased participation at older ages started in the late 1980s before the turnaround in older men’s labor force participation and the economic downturns of the 2000s. The higher labor force participation of older women consists disproportionately of those working at full-time jobs. Increased labor force participation of women in their older ages is part of the general increase in cohort labor force participation. Cohort effects, in turn, are mainly a function of educational advances and greater prior work experience. But labor force participation rates of the most recent cohorts in their forties are less than those for previous cohorts. These factors may suggest that employment at older ages will stagnate or even decrease. But several other factors will be operating in an opposing direction and leads us to conclude that women are likely to continue to work even longer.Less

Economic Well-being

Richard Alba and Nancy Foner

in Strangers No More: Immigration and the Challenges of Integration in North America and Western Europe

This chapter looks at the economic situations of the immigrants. They have uprooted themselves in the search for better economic prospects, but profound changes in the economic structures of the rich ... More

This chapter looks at the economic situations of the immigrants. They have uprooted themselves in the search for better economic prospects, but profound changes in the economic structures of the rich societies of the West in recent years raise serious doubts about whether their aspirations will be fulfilled and therefore about the starting point for the next generation. The chapter then explores the implications of growing labor market inequality and precarious work for the economic incorporation of immigrants, including rates of labor force participation, unemployment, and risks of poverty. The emphasis is on how immigrants are doing compared to natives in the countries where they live, with the emphasis on low-status immigrants.Less

The Origin and Persistence of Black-White Differences in Women’s Labor Force Participation

Leah Platt Boustan, Carola Frydman, and Robert A. Margo

in Human Capital in History: The American Record

Black women were more likely than white women to participate in the labor force from 1870 until at least 1980 and to hold jobs in agriculture or manufacturing. Differences in observables cannot ... More

Black women were more likely than white women to participate in the labor force from 1870 until at least 1980 and to hold jobs in agriculture or manufacturing. Differences in observables cannot account for most of this racial gap in labor force participation for the 100 years after Emancipation. The unexplained racial gap may be due to racial differences in stigma associated with women’s work, which Goldin (1977) suggested could be traced to cultural norms rooted in slavery. In both nineteenth and twentieth century data, we find evidence of inter-generation transmission of labor force participation from mother to daughter, which is consistent with the role of cultural norms.Less

Labor Force Participation of Older Males in Korea: 1955 to 2005

Chulhee Lee

in The Economic Consequences of Demographic Change in East Asia

This chapter investigates labor force participation (LFP) of older males (sixty and above) in Korea over the last fifty years, taking advantage of the availability of a long span of data through the ... More

This chapter investigates labor force participation (LFP) of older males (sixty and above) in Korea over the last fifty years, taking advantage of the availability of a long span of data through the Population and Housing Census. The chapter shows that there was a substantial decline in LFP from 1997 to 2000, most likely due to the East Asian financial crisis. An econometric model of LFP is examined that uses data that were pooled over time, and links it to education, marital status, family size, and various regional characteristics. The chapter uses empirical analysis that employs a relatively untouched micro data set concerning housing and population. It is concluded that older males in rural areas tend to stay in the labor force longer involuntarily because of insufficient savings.Less

The Evolution of Labor Supply and Unemployment in the Egyptian Economy: 1988–2012

Ragui Assaad and Caroline Krafft

in The Egyptian Labor Market in an Era of Revolution

This chapter analyzes the evolution of labor supply and unemployment in Egypt in the period from 1988 to 2012, focusing on the impact of the demographic phenomenon known as the youth bulge and the ... More

This chapter analyzes the evolution of labor supply and unemployment in Egypt in the period from 1988 to 2012, focusing on the impact of the demographic phenomenon known as the youth bulge and the impact of the world financial crisis and the marked economic slowdown following the January 25th 2011 revolution. Trends in population, the labor force, employment, and unemployment are investigated and examined by age and education. Even though demographic pressures on the labor market have decreased since 2006 as the youth bulge generation has already made its way into the labor market, employment rates have decreased, labor force participation among women has decreased, unemployment has slightly increased, and under-employment has increased substantially. Overall, the labor market in the wake of the revolution is in a weaker position than in 2006.Less

The Development of Women's Labor Market Experiences

in Gendered Trajectories: Women, Work, and Social Change in Japan and Taiwan

This chapter discusses how women's employment trajectories have differed between Japan and Taiwan, as well as the consequences of these differences. Using survey data containing individuals' detailed ... More

This chapter discusses how women's employment trajectories have differed between Japan and Taiwan, as well as the consequences of these differences. Using survey data containing individuals' detailed work histories, the discussion show changes in women's timing and duration of labor force participation, as well as their frequency of job shifts over time. This analysis helps establish the critical time points when women in these two countries began to diverge in their patterns of labor force participation. It also compares men's and women's career processes in both countries, examining the implications of the gender difference in work trajectories for women's income and occupational attainment over the long run. It presents evidence that women's decisions to continue their jobs after marriage and childbirth play a crucial role in shaping their lifetime economic status.Less

Incentives to Retire, the Employment of the Old, and the Employment of the Young in Sweden

Mårten Palme and Ingemar Svensson

in Social Security Programs and Retirement around the World: Fiscal Implications of Reform

This chapter empirically examines the hypothesis that the increasing generosity of the social security system has decreased labor force participation among the elderly. It then investigates whether ... More

This chapter empirically examines the hypothesis that the increasing generosity of the social security system has decreased labor force participation among the elderly. It then investigates whether labor force participation among older workers affects employment among younger workers. The chapter is organized as follows. Section 10.2 gives a short description of the history of Sweden's pension schemes. Section 10.3 investigates policies based on the argument for providing job opportunities for the young. Section 10.4 analyzes to what extent program provisions affect employment of older workers. Section 10.5 presents the results from the analysis of the relation between labor force participation of older workers and employment of the young. Section 10.6 draws conclusions.Less

Gender Inequality in Work, Health, and Income

MAYRA BUVINIC, ANTONIO GIUFFRIDA, and AMANDA GLASSMAN

in Global Inequalities at Work: Work's Impact on the Health of Individuals, Families, and Societies

In Latin America and the Caribbean, more women than men have entered the labor force since the 1980s; what are the implications for women's health status? This chapter reviews the empirical evidence ... More

In Latin America and the Caribbean, more women than men have entered the labor force since the 1980s; what are the implications for women's health status? This chapter reviews the empirical evidence on the effects of women's paid work on their health in Latin America. It begins with a brief description of the changing nature of labor markets and women's labor force participation. It then explores women's occupational health risks and mentions some initiatives that seek to respond to these risks. Next, it looks at the existing evidence for the positive effects of paid work on women's health and child health, and finally, it provides policy recommendations.Less

The Effects of Education and Marriage on Young Women’s Labor Force Participation in the Middle East and North Africa

Edward A. Sayre and Rana Hendy

in Young Generation Awakening: Economics, Society, and Policy on the Eve of the Arab Spring

The Arab Middle East still lags behind the rest of the world in women’s labor force participation. This chapter explores the causes of Arab women’s low labor force participation, specifically the ... More

The Arab Middle East still lags behind the rest of the world in women’s labor force participation. This chapter explores the causes of Arab women’s low labor force participation, specifically the effect of marriage, by using micro-level data and retrospective histories from labor market panel surveys in Jordan and Egypt and a labor force survey in Tunisia. In Egypt and Jordan, women are more likely to stay in the labor force if they had a job in the public sector before marriage. The role of the formal private sector in women’s employment explains married Jordanian women’s relatively low-level labor force participation. Furthermore, husbands with more schooling are more likely to have wives who work, so long as the wives have at least a secondary degree. For women with less than a secondary degree, more schooling for the husband makes the wife less likely to participate in the labor force.Less

. Disability Insurance, Population Health, and Employment in Sweden

Lisa Jönsson, Mårten Palme, and Ingemar Svensson

in Social Security Programs and Retirement around the World: Historical Trends in Mortality and Health, Employment, and Disability Insurance Participation and Reforms

This chapter examines the extent to which the evolution of disability insurance utilization can be explained by changes in the population health status and by changes in eligibility rules. Three main ... More

This chapter examines the extent to which the evolution of disability insurance utilization can be explained by changes in the population health status and by changes in eligibility rules. Three main research questions are addressed. First, is there a relationship between disability insurance utilization and the development of population health status in recent decades? Second, did the changes in eligibility rules for older workers affect disability insurance utilization? And third, did the changes in eligibility rules for older workers affect labor market outcomes such as employment and labor-force participation, or were they “crowded out” by the utilization of other income security programs?Less

Overlapping Identities: Caste and Gender

Ashwani Deshpande

in The Grammar of Caste: Economic Discrimination in Contemporary India

The previous chapters suggest that identity matters in the real world, even in strongly market-oriented situations. What happens when there are overlapping identities? There are several contexts ... More

The previous chapters suggest that identity matters in the real world, even in strongly market-oriented situations. What happens when there are overlapping identities? There are several contexts where identity has multiple contours and every individual simultaneously has multiple identities: race, religion, nationality, gender, and so forth. This chapter focuses on two important definitions of identity in the Indian context: caste and gender. It reports the evidence on the changing nature of that overlap. In addition to economic indicators, it also discusses the evidence on women's autonomy and decision-making ability within the household and on domestic violence, based on two rounds of a large survey. Recent evidence suggests that women from castes lowest in the hierarchy are trapped in a cesspool of poverty, deprivation, and reduced autonomy.Less

Gendered Offices: A Comparative-Iistorical Examination of Clerical Work in Japan and the United States

Mary C. Brinton

in The Political Economy of Japan's Low Fertility

This chapter examines the clerical sector in the United States and Japan. It first outlines the historically transformative role of the clerical sector in increasing American female labor force ... More

This chapter examines the clerical sector in the United States and Japan. It first outlines the historically transformative role of the clerical sector in increasing American female labor force participation, especially for the married population. It shows that the early cultural labeling of clerical work as “female” and women's subsequent near-monopolization of most of the numerically largest clerical occupations opened up a culturally sanctioned space for women in the American labor force that was preserved even when demands were high for full employment for men, as in the early post-WWII era. Next, the chapter outlines recent historical trends in women's clerical sector participation in Japan. It shows that although large numbers of women do hold clerical jobs, their presence in these positions does not increase their lifetime labor force attachment. The final section discusses in more general terms what the contrast between the United States and Japan tells us about the conditions necessary for clerical sector expansion to have a transformative effect on married women's labor force participation and rewards.Less

Women in the Tunisian Labor Market

Rim Ben Ayed Mouelhi and Mohamed Goaied

in The Tunisian Labor Market in an Era of Transition

This chapter aims at analyzing the characteristics of female employment and unemployment in Tunisia and at identifying the main incentives and constraints to female labor participation and choice of ... More

This chapter aims at analyzing the characteristics of female employment and unemployment in Tunisia and at identifying the main incentives and constraints to female labor participation and choice of employment status. After the 2000s, female participation stagnated at around 25 percent in Tunisia—higher than the average in the MENA countries but half the world rate. Several socio-cultural factors with economic implications shape the participation of women in the labor market. Marital status is considered a constraint for labor force participation for woman. Women’s educational attainment also influences both their participation decision and the type of employment they choose. The services sectors provide the majority of female jobs, especially in the public sector, which is considered “family friendly.” Women are poorly represented in positions of responsibility and leadership, and the rate of self-employment among Tunisian women is low. The female unemployment rate is above that of men.Less

The Wealth Escalator and the Debt Anchor

Mariko Lin Chang

in Shortchanged: Why Women Have Less Wealth and What Can Be Done About It

This chapter discusses the concept of the wealth escalator as the mechanism for understanding why men have an advantage when it comes to translating income into wealth. It also discusses the debt ... More

This chapter discusses the concept of the wealth escalator as the mechanism for understanding why men have an advantage when it comes to translating income into wealth. It also discusses the debt anchor that compounds women's wealth-building disadvantage. It argues that, while earnings are important, the ability to tap into the wealth escalator helps one build wealth much more quickly than by earnings alone. Women's lower incomes place them at a disadvantage in wealth building, but women are less likely to tap into the wealth escalator because of the types of jobs and industries they work in and because of their patterns of labor force participation.Less

Women’s Participation in the Egyptian Labor Market: 1998–2012

Rana Hendy

in The Egyptian Labor Market in an Era of Revolution

This chapter examines the reasons for the persistent low participation of women in the Egyptian labor market over time and across the different economic sectors during the period leading up to and ... More

This chapter examines the reasons for the persistent low participation of women in the Egyptian labor market over time and across the different economic sectors during the period leading up to and including the revolution. Despite the remarkable increase in women’s educational attainment, participation in the labor market remains relatively low. Confirming widespread opinion, the findings indicate that the January 25th revolution has had a negative effect on women’s status in the labor market. Labor force participation has decreased, and inactivity has increased. For men, the figures are different; employment has increased and both unemployment and inactivity have decreased. This chapter also analyzes the different factors that determine female labor force participation. Some of these factors are related to the supply of female labor, such as family circumstances. Other factors are rather related to the demand side, such as the shrinking public sector and discrimination in the private sector.Less

Demographics, Labor Force Participation, and Unemployment in Jordan

Nader Mryyan

in The Jordanian Labor Market in the New Millennium

This chapter examines the evolution of the working-age population in Jordan in terms of age and educational attainment. It relates these trends to the pattern of labour force participation and ... More

This chapter examines the evolution of the working-age population in Jordan in terms of age and educational attainment. It relates these trends to the pattern of labour force participation and unemployment in Jordan. This chapter finds that although rates of female labour force participation in Jordan are quite low, female unemployment rates are very high, especially for young women. The chapter also finds that a significant proportion of inactive women in Jordan are discouraged unemployed, in the sense that they are ready and available for work, but are not actively seeking it. These results suggest that as educational attainment increases in Jordan, more young women are seeking employment, but that the labour market is not providing them with jobs that are deemed socially acceptable for women in a conservative Middle Eastern society.Less