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Nimble Fingers No Longer! Women's Employment in Iran

Roksana Bahramitash and Hadi Salehi Esfahani

in Contemporary Iran: Economy, Society, Politics

This chapter reexamines the evolution of women's labor force participation (LFP) and employment in Iran in light of census data from the latter half of the 20th century, roughly 1956 to 2006. It ... More

This chapter reexamines the evolution of women's labor force participation (LFP) and employment in Iran in light of census data from the latter half of the 20th century, roughly 1956 to 2006. It begins by reviewing the economic performance of Iran since the 1950s. It then examines the aggregate trends in women's LFP and employment. It considers the sectoral pattern of female employment and analyzes the role of age structure and education, and deals with trends in women's occupations and positions in the labor market. The chapter concludes with a discussion of likely opportunities and challenges for Iranian women in the coming decades.Less

Gender Role Attitudes since 1972: Are Southerners Distinctive?

Karen E. Campbell and Peter V. Marsden

in Social Trends in American Life: Findings from the General Social Survey since 1972

Several previous General Social Survey-based studies have revealed increasing acceptance of nontraditional gender roles. This chapter builds upon and extends these findings. It shows that adults ... More

Several previous General Social Survey-based studies have revealed increasing acceptance of nontraditional gender roles. This chapter builds upon and extends these findings. It shows that adults became less predisposed toward a “separate spheres” conception holding that women should specialize in caring for children and households while men predominate in the more public arenas of employment and politics. Most growth in acceptance of broadened women's roles took place by the mid-1990s, however, mirroring trends in women's labor force participation and their representation in political office. The chapter then illustrates the regional convergence noted by Fischer and Hout (2006), showing that southerners continue to espouse more traditional views about gender, but less so over time.Less

Economic Well-being

Richard Alba and Nancy Foner

in Strangers No More: Immigration and the Challenges of Integration in North America and Western Europe

This chapter looks at the economic situations of the immigrants. They have uprooted themselves in the search for better economic prospects, but profound changes in the economic structures of the rich ... More

This chapter looks at the economic situations of the immigrants. They have uprooted themselves in the search for better economic prospects, but profound changes in the economic structures of the rich societies of the West in recent years raise serious doubts about whether their aspirations will be fulfilled and therefore about the starting point for the next generation. The chapter then explores the implications of growing labor market inequality and precarious work for the economic incorporation of immigrants, including rates of labor force participation, unemployment, and risks of poverty. The emphasis is on how immigrants are doing compared to natives in the countries where they live, with the emphasis on low-status immigrants.Less

Women Working Longer: Facts and Some Explanations

Claudia Goldin and Lawrence F. Katz

in Women Working Longer: Increased Employment at Older Ages

American women are working more, through their sixties and even into their seventies. Their increased participation at older ages started in the late 1980s before the turnaround in older men’s labor ... More

American women are working more, through their sixties and even into their seventies. Their increased participation at older ages started in the late 1980s before the turnaround in older men’s labor force participation and the economic downturns of the 2000s. The higher labor force participation of older women consists disproportionately of those working at full-time jobs. Increased labor force participation of women in their older ages is part of the general increase in cohort labor force participation. Cohort effects, in turn, are mainly a function of educational advances and greater prior work experience. But labor force participation rates of the most recent cohorts in their forties are less than those for previous cohorts. These factors may suggest that employment at older ages will stagnate or even decrease. But several other factors will be operating in an opposing direction and leads us to conclude that women are likely to continue to work even longer.Less

The Labor Force Participation of Older Men in Canada

Kevin Milligan and Tammy Schirle

in Social Security Programs and Retirement around the World: Working Longer

With few exceptions, the labor force participation rates of older men in OECD countries have followed a common trend—after declining steadily for decades, the labor force participation rates of older ... More

With few exceptions, the labor force participation rates of older men in OECD countries have followed a common trend—after declining steadily for decades, the labor force participation rates of older men started to increase after the mid-1990s. We explore recent trends in the labor force participation rates of men aged 55 to 69 in Canada. Following steady declines in labor force participation until the mid-1990s, the labor force participation rates of older men have increased substantially and have reached historically high rates among those aged 65 to 69. We consider various factors that may influence the labor force participation rates of older men and suggest that improvements in health, higher education, and the increased attachment of older wives to the labor market are likely important factors driving recent trends in older men’s labor force participation in Canada.Less

The Origin and Persistence of Black-White Differences in Women’s Labor Force Participation

Leah Platt Boustan, Carola Frydman, and Robert A. Margo

in Human Capital in History: The American Record

Black women were more likely than white women to participate in the labor force from 1870 until at least 1980 and to hold jobs in agriculture or manufacturing. Differences in observables cannot ... More

Black women were more likely than white women to participate in the labor force from 1870 until at least 1980 and to hold jobs in agriculture or manufacturing. Differences in observables cannot account for most of this racial gap in labor force participation for the 100 years after Emancipation. The unexplained racial gap may be due to racial differences in stigma associated with women’s work, which Goldin (1977) suggested could be traced to cultural norms rooted in slavery. In both nineteenth and twentieth century data, we find evidence of inter-generation transmission of labor force participation from mother to daughter, which is consistent with the role of cultural norms.Less

Introduction

Courtney C. Coile, Kevin Milligan, and David A. Wise

in Social Security Programs and Retirement around the World: Working Longer

This is the eighth phase of a project on social security and retirement that compares the experiences of a dozen developed countries. The project was launched in the mid-1990s following decades of ... More

This is the eighth phase of a project on social security and retirement that compares the experiences of a dozen developed countries. The project was launched in the mid-1990s following decades of declining labor force participation rates of older men. The first several phases document that social security program provisions can create powerful incentives for retirement that are strongly correlated with the labor force behavior of older workers. Subsequent project phases have explored disability program provisions and their effects on retirement as well as potential obstacles to promoting work at older ages, including whether there is a link between older employment and youth unemployment and whether older individuals are healthy enough to work longer. Since the project began, the decline in men’s labor force participation has ended and been replaced by sharply rising participation rates. Older women’s participation has been rising as well. In this volume, we explore this phenomenon of working longer. We document trends in participation and employment and consider factors that may explain these changes. We conclude that social security reforms as well as other factors such as the movement of women into the labor force have likely played an important role.Less

The Evolution of Labor Supply and Unemployment in the Egyptian Economy: 1988–2012

Ragui Assaad and Caroline Krafft

in The Egyptian Labor Market in an Era of Revolution

This chapter analyzes the evolution of labor supply and unemployment in Egypt in the period from 1988 to 2012, focusing on the impact of the demographic phenomenon known as the youth bulge and the ... More

This chapter analyzes the evolution of labor supply and unemployment in Egypt in the period from 1988 to 2012, focusing on the impact of the demographic phenomenon known as the youth bulge and the impact of the world financial crisis and the marked economic slowdown following the January 25th 2011 revolution. Trends in population, the labor force, employment, and unemployment are investigated and examined by age and education. Even though demographic pressures on the labor market have decreased since 2006 as the youth bulge generation has already made its way into the labor market, employment rates have decreased, labor force participation among women has decreased, unemployment has slightly increased, and under-employment has increased substantially. Overall, the labor market in the wake of the revolution is in a weaker position than in 2006.Less

Labor Force Participation of Older Males in Korea: 1955 to 2005

Chulhee Lee

in The Economic Consequences of Demographic Change in East Asia

This chapter investigates labor force participation (LFP) of older males (sixty and above) in Korea over the last fifty years, taking advantage of the availability of a long span of data through the ... More

This chapter investigates labor force participation (LFP) of older males (sixty and above) in Korea over the last fifty years, taking advantage of the availability of a long span of data through the Population and Housing Census. The chapter shows that there was a substantial decline in LFP from 1997 to 2000, most likely due to the East Asian financial crisis. An econometric model of LFP is examined that uses data that were pooled over time, and links it to education, marital status, family size, and various regional characteristics. The chapter uses empirical analysis that employs a relatively untouched micro data set concerning housing and population. It is concluded that older males in rural areas tend to stay in the labor force longer involuntarily because of insufficient savings.Less

The Recent Rise of Labor Force Participation of Older Workers in Sweden

Lisa Laun and Mårten Palme

in Social Security Programs and Retirement around the World: Working Longer

This paper studies the background to the increase in labor force participation of older workers in Sweden since 2000. In the first part, we study how the characteristics of the elderly have changed ... More

This paper studies the background to the increase in labor force participation of older workers in Sweden since 2000. In the first part, we study how the characteristics of the elderly have changed with respect to health, education level and work environment, as well as the impact of joint decision-making within the household. In the second part, we study the importance of institutional changes, including a major reform of the old-age pension system, introduction of tax credits for older workers, changes of the mandatory retirement age and stricter eligibility criteria in the disability insurance program. We find that the rise in labor force participation has coincided with improvements in health and educational attainment across birth cohorts as well as increased screening stringency in the disability insurance program.Less

Working Longer in the United States: Trends and Explanations

Courtney C. Coile

in Social Security Programs and Retirement around the World: Working Longer

Over the past two decades, labor force participation rates for older men have been rising, reversing a century-long trend towards earlier retirement. Participation rates for older women are rising as ... More

Over the past two decades, labor force participation rates for older men have been rising, reversing a century-long trend towards earlier retirement. Participation rates for older women are rising as well. A number of theories have been put forward to explain the rise in participation at older ages, including improving mortality and health, increasing education and a shift towards less physically demanding work, and changes in employer-provided benefits and Social Security. This paper documents trends in labor force participation and employment at older ages and in the factors that may be contributing to rising participation. A review of these trends and of the relevant literature suggests that increases in education, women’s growing role in the economy, the shift from defined benefit to defined contribution pension plans, and Social Security reforms all likely played some role in the trend towards longer work lives.Less

Old-Age Labor Force Participation in Germany: What Explains the Trend Reversal among Older Men and the Steady Increase among Women?

Axel Börsch-Supan and Irene Ferrari

in Social Security Programs and Retirement around the World: Working Longer

The aim of this paper is to illustrate for Germany the factors that may explain the U-shaped pattern of older men’s labor force participation—from a long declining trend that began in the early 1970s ... More

The aim of this paper is to illustrate for Germany the factors that may explain the U-shaped pattern of older men’s labor force participation—from a long declining trend that began in the early 1970s to an increasing trend starting from the late 1990s—and at the same time the steady increase in older women’s labor force participation. In a first step, we provide graphical evidence of the trends of various variables which may be relevant, with the aim of investigating the presence or absence of common patterns between these factors and labor force participation. Then, through a decomposition analysis, we provide an empirical estimate of the contribution of some of these factors to the overall evolution of labor force participation. Our preliminary conclusion is that much of the change in the trend of older men’s labor force participation may be explained by changes in public pension regulations, and in particular by the phasing in of actuarial adjustments for early retirement. Regarding women, whether public pension rules play a role is unclear. Most probably, the secular change of women’s role in society is the main driver of the steadily increasing labor force participation among German women.Less

Gender Inequality in Work, Health, and Income

MAYRA BUVINIC, ANTONIO GIUFFRIDA, and AMANDA GLASSMAN

in Global Inequalities at Work: Work's Impact on the Health of Individuals, Families, and Societies

In Latin America and the Caribbean, more women than men have entered the labor force since the 1980s; what are the implications for women's health status? This chapter reviews the empirical evidence ... More

In Latin America and the Caribbean, more women than men have entered the labor force since the 1980s; what are the implications for women's health status? This chapter reviews the empirical evidence on the effects of women's paid work on their health in Latin America. It begins with a brief description of the changing nature of labor markets and women's labor force participation. It then explores women's occupational health risks and mentions some initiatives that seek to respond to these risks. Next, it looks at the existing evidence for the positive effects of paid work on women's health and child health, and finally, it provides policy recommendations.Less

Overlapping Identities: Caste and Gender

Ashwani Deshpande

in The Grammar of Caste: Economic Discrimination in Contemporary India

The previous chapters suggest that identity matters in the real world, even in strongly market-oriented situations. What happens when there are overlapping identities? There are several contexts ... More

The previous chapters suggest that identity matters in the real world, even in strongly market-oriented situations. What happens when there are overlapping identities? There are several contexts where identity has multiple contours and every individual simultaneously has multiple identities: race, religion, nationality, gender, and so forth. This chapter focuses on two important definitions of identity in the Indian context: caste and gender. It reports the evidence on the changing nature of that overlap. In addition to economic indicators, it also discusses the evidence on women's autonomy and decision-making ability within the household and on domestic violence, based on two rounds of a large survey. Recent evidence suggests that women from castes lowest in the hierarchy are trapped in a cesspool of poverty, deprivation, and reduced autonomy.Less

Trends in Labor Force Participation of Older Workers in Spain

Pilar García-Gómez, Sergi Jiménez-Martín, and Judit Vall Castelló

in Social Security Programs and Retirement around the World: Working Longer

Similar to other OECD countries, labor force participation rates of Spanish older workers were falling until the mid-1990s when there was a reversal in the trend. Labor force participation rates of ... More

Similar to other OECD countries, labor force participation rates of Spanish older workers were falling until the mid-1990s when there was a reversal in the trend. Labor force participation rates of Spanish men have been increasing since then, although at a slower pace than in other OECD countries. We explore to what extent several factors can be behind these trends. First, we conclude that the (old-age) social security system (except perhaps for the disability component) has played a marginal (at most) role on this reversal given the lack of major changes in social security benefits until the last set of reforms in 2011 and 2013. Second, we also rule out that changes in the health status of the population are responsible for the reversal of this trend. Finally, we find that aggregate economic conditions, and differences across cohorts in both the skill composition and the labor force attachment of wives are potential drivers of these observed changes.Less

The Development of Women's Labor Market Experiences

in Gendered Trajectories: Women, Work, and Social Change in Japan and Taiwan

This chapter discusses how women's employment trajectories have differed between Japan and Taiwan, as well as the consequences of these differences. Using survey data containing individuals' detailed ... More

This chapter discusses how women's employment trajectories have differed between Japan and Taiwan, as well as the consequences of these differences. Using survey data containing individuals' detailed work histories, the discussion show changes in women's timing and duration of labor force participation, as well as their frequency of job shifts over time. This analysis helps establish the critical time points when women in these two countries began to diverge in their patterns of labor force participation. It also compares men's and women's career processes in both countries, examining the implications of the gender difference in work trajectories for women's income and occupational attainment over the long run. It presents evidence that women's decisions to continue their jobs after marriage and childbirth play a crucial role in shaping their lifetime economic status.Less

Incentives to Retire, the Employment of the Old, and the Employment of the Young in Sweden

Mårten Palme and Ingemar Svensson

in Social Security Programs and Retirement around the World: Fiscal Implications of Reform

This chapter empirically examines the hypothesis that the increasing generosity of the social security system has decreased labor force participation among the elderly. It then investigates whether ... More

This chapter empirically examines the hypothesis that the increasing generosity of the social security system has decreased labor force participation among the elderly. It then investigates whether labor force participation among older workers affects employment among younger workers. The chapter is organized as follows. Section 10.2 gives a short description of the history of Sweden's pension schemes. Section 10.3 investigates policies based on the argument for providing job opportunities for the young. Section 10.4 analyzes to what extent program provisions affect employment of older workers. Section 10.5 presents the results from the analysis of the relation between labor force participation of older workers and employment of the young. Section 10.6 draws conclusions.Less

The Wealth Escalator and the Debt Anchor

Mariko Lin Chang

in Shortchanged: Why Women Have Less Wealth and What Can Be Done About It

This chapter discusses the concept of the wealth escalator as the mechanism for understanding why men have an advantage when it comes to translating income into wealth. It also discusses the debt ... More

This chapter discusses the concept of the wealth escalator as the mechanism for understanding why men have an advantage when it comes to translating income into wealth. It also discusses the debt anchor that compounds women's wealth-building disadvantage. It argues that, while earnings are important, the ability to tap into the wealth escalator helps one build wealth much more quickly than by earnings alone. Women's lower incomes place them at a disadvantage in wealth building, but women are less likely to tap into the wealth escalator because of the types of jobs and industries they work in and because of their patterns of labor force participation.Less