A. S. Morrison
- Published in print:
- 2008
- Published Online:
- January 2009
- ISBN:
- 9780199547371
- eISBN:
- 9780191720710
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199547371.003.0004
- Subject:
- History, Asian History
This chapter covers the earliest attempts to create a colonial administration in Samarkand after 1868. The principal effect of this was to expropriate a class of landholders/tax officials known as ...
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This chapter covers the earliest attempts to create a colonial administration in Samarkand after 1868. The principal effect of this was to expropriate a class of landholders/tax officials known as Amlakdars, and instead the Russians sought to recreate local elites at the village level, with unpredictable results. This stands in stark contrast to British policy throughout most of India, where securing the co-operation of aristocratic elites was a fundamental tactic of Imperial rule.Less
This chapter covers the earliest attempts to create a colonial administration in Samarkand after 1868. The principal effect of this was to expropriate a class of landholders/tax officials known as Amlakdars, and instead the Russians sought to recreate local elites at the village level, with unpredictable results. This stands in stark contrast to British policy throughout most of India, where securing the co-operation of aristocratic elites was a fundamental tactic of Imperial rule.
Kwangmin Kim
- Published in print:
- 2016
- Published Online:
- May 2017
- ISBN:
- 9780804799232
- eISBN:
- 9781503600423
- Item type:
- book
- Publisher:
- Stanford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.11126/stanford/9780804799232.001.0001
- Subject:
- History, Asian History
This book provides an examination of the Muslim notability (begs) and their development of capitalistic enterprises in Eastern Turkestan under the Qing Empire. The begs, the powerful organizers of ...
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This book provides an examination of the Muslim notability (begs) and their development of capitalistic enterprises in Eastern Turkestan under the Qing Empire. The begs, the powerful organizers of trade, agriculture, and labor in the oases, needed the empire and its military as a patron of their capitalistic reorganization of the oasis agriculture and the expansion of their access to new markets and resources. The Qing needed the begs as the foundation of imperial security and as partners in revenue extraction from local agriculture and mining development constituencies. However, the capitalistic transformation of the oasis economy created socio-economic tensions between the begs and the rural villagers. From the latter’s ranks, resistance grew in the form of bandits and refugees fleeing into the mountains that surrounded the oases, where these people would amass to form outsider communities. These communities, under the leadership of Sufi holy men (khwaja), eventually engaged in over political action in the early 1800s, which culminated in war against the Qing state. The Qing fell in Central Asia in 1864, as this new crisis deepened after Opium War (1839-42). This book offers a new perspective on Qing imperial history, and also contributes to a revised narrative on the history of global capitalism and imperialism on a truly global scale, and in an interconnected fashion.Less
This book provides an examination of the Muslim notability (begs) and their development of capitalistic enterprises in Eastern Turkestan under the Qing Empire. The begs, the powerful organizers of trade, agriculture, and labor in the oases, needed the empire and its military as a patron of their capitalistic reorganization of the oasis agriculture and the expansion of their access to new markets and resources. The Qing needed the begs as the foundation of imperial security and as partners in revenue extraction from local agriculture and mining development constituencies. However, the capitalistic transformation of the oasis economy created socio-economic tensions between the begs and the rural villagers. From the latter’s ranks, resistance grew in the form of bandits and refugees fleeing into the mountains that surrounded the oases, where these people would amass to form outsider communities. These communities, under the leadership of Sufi holy men (khwaja), eventually engaged in over political action in the early 1800s, which culminated in war against the Qing state. The Qing fell in Central Asia in 1864, as this new crisis deepened after Opium War (1839-42). This book offers a new perspective on Qing imperial history, and also contributes to a revised narrative on the history of global capitalism and imperialism on a truly global scale, and in an interconnected fashion.
Kwangmin Kim
- Published in print:
- 2016
- Published Online:
- May 2017
- ISBN:
- 9780804799232
- eISBN:
- 9781503600423
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Stanford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.11126/stanford/9780804799232.003.0004
- Subject:
- History, Asian History
This chapter examines the careers of Jahangir and Yusuf, two Sufi khwajas who led local resistance against the Qing-beg state in the early nineteenth century. The violent process of beg-initiated ...
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This chapter examines the careers of Jahangir and Yusuf, two Sufi khwajas who led local resistance against the Qing-beg state in the early nineteenth century. The violent process of beg-initiated agrarian development contributed to the emergence of a rapidly expanding community of refugees in the rugged mountainsides of Pamir and Tianshan. By leading revolts, the two khwaja transformed themselves from being mere émigrés to “organic” religious leaders who represented the mountain people’s energy, frustration, and anxiety. The Qing response, the Nayancheng reform policies (1828 -1829) ironically increased the power of the khwaja coalition. The empire’s military reinforcement increased burdens of taxation and forced labor on the oasis villagers, contributing to an upsurge of number of the refugees. The Qing trade embargo on the Khoqand merchants also forced its ruler, who had been a reliable ally of the Qing, to join forces with the khwajas instead, if reluctantly.Less
This chapter examines the careers of Jahangir and Yusuf, two Sufi khwajas who led local resistance against the Qing-beg state in the early nineteenth century. The violent process of beg-initiated agrarian development contributed to the emergence of a rapidly expanding community of refugees in the rugged mountainsides of Pamir and Tianshan. By leading revolts, the two khwaja transformed themselves from being mere émigrés to “organic” religious leaders who represented the mountain people’s energy, frustration, and anxiety. The Qing response, the Nayancheng reform policies (1828 -1829) ironically increased the power of the khwaja coalition. The empire’s military reinforcement increased burdens of taxation and forced labor on the oasis villagers, contributing to an upsurge of number of the refugees. The Qing trade embargo on the Khoqand merchants also forced its ruler, who had been a reliable ally of the Qing, to join forces with the khwajas instead, if reluctantly.
Sebouh David Aslanian
- Published in print:
- 2011
- Published Online:
- March 2012
- ISBN:
- 9780520266872
- eISBN:
- 9780520947573
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- University of California Press
- DOI:
- 10.1525/california/9780520266872.003.0006
- Subject:
- History, Middle East History
This chapter explores the role of the commenda contract in Julfan trade during the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries by situating the commenda within the context of the “family firm,” the basic ...
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This chapter explores the role of the commenda contract in Julfan trade during the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries by situating the commenda within the context of the “family firm,” the basic organizational unit of Julfan commerce. It explores the legal and economic institution of the commenda contract among the Julfan merchants and argues that the commenda was the principal mechanism among Julfans for the circulation of men and credit. As a means of bringing together a principal merchant, known as a khwaja among the Julfans, the commenda was an economic institution of possibly Islamic origins and was widely used in the Mediterranean in the medieval period. The chapter surveys the origins and functions of the Mediterranean commenda and through a rigorous examination of Julfan commercial law and of surviving commenda contracts points out the crucial differences of this legal-commercial institution among Julfan merchants.Less
This chapter explores the role of the commenda contract in Julfan trade during the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries by situating the commenda within the context of the “family firm,” the basic organizational unit of Julfan commerce. It explores the legal and economic institution of the commenda contract among the Julfan merchants and argues that the commenda was the principal mechanism among Julfans for the circulation of men and credit. As a means of bringing together a principal merchant, known as a khwaja among the Julfans, the commenda was an economic institution of possibly Islamic origins and was widely used in the Mediterranean in the medieval period. The chapter surveys the origins and functions of the Mediterranean commenda and through a rigorous examination of Julfan commercial law and of surviving commenda contracts points out the crucial differences of this legal-commercial institution among Julfan merchants.
Kwangmin Kim
- Published in print:
- 2016
- Published Online:
- May 2017
- ISBN:
- 9780804799232
- eISBN:
- 9781503600423
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Stanford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.11126/stanford/9780804799232.003.0001
- Subject:
- History, Asian History
This chapter offers an overview of the Muslim notables and the scope and structure of capitalistic commercial agriculture they developed in the Xinjiang oasis. In particular, it argues that the Qing ...
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This chapter offers an overview of the Muslim notables and the scope and structure of capitalistic commercial agriculture they developed in the Xinjiang oasis. In particular, it argues that the Qing empire played a pivotal role in the expansion of the beg enterprise, which caused social tensions within the oasis society resulting in a series of anti-beg and anti-Qing revolts led by Sufi holy man (khwaja). Their story revises the previous narrative on the Qing empire in Central Asia, which was written from a China-centered perspective, and contributes to the global understanding of capitalism by identifying native capitalist developments in Chinese Central Asia, which has often been considered a backwater of world history.Less
This chapter offers an overview of the Muslim notables and the scope and structure of capitalistic commercial agriculture they developed in the Xinjiang oasis. In particular, it argues that the Qing empire played a pivotal role in the expansion of the beg enterprise, which caused social tensions within the oasis society resulting in a series of anti-beg and anti-Qing revolts led by Sufi holy man (khwaja). Their story revises the previous narrative on the Qing empire in Central Asia, which was written from a China-centered perspective, and contributes to the global understanding of capitalism by identifying native capitalist developments in Chinese Central Asia, which has often been considered a backwater of world history.
Kwangmin Kim
- Published in print:
- 2016
- Published Online:
- May 2017
- ISBN:
- 9780804799232
- eISBN:
- 9781503600423
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Stanford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.11126/stanford/9780804799232.003.0002
- Subject:
- History, Asian History
Offering an examination of a prominent pro-Qing beg Emin Khwaja’s career and his family background, this chapter explores how the begs’ interests in securing resources, labor, and silver set them on ...
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Offering an examination of a prominent pro-Qing beg Emin Khwaja’s career and his family background, this chapter explores how the begs’ interests in securing resources, labor, and silver set them on the path of a profitable partnership with the Qing Empire. At the center of this story was the presence of the Sufi migrants and their families, the mainstay of the pro-Qing begs. Sufi migrants’ interests in developing commercial agriculture in the oasis under the changing environment of trade in Eurasia spurred their settlement into Eastern Turkestan and into an alliance with the Qing also. They had experienced a crisis in the local political economy in the seventeenth century caused by a sudden, if temporary, decline in the Chinese tribute trade. In their view, an alliance with the Qing, especially one that provided a direct connection to the China market would be a solution to this problem.Less
Offering an examination of a prominent pro-Qing beg Emin Khwaja’s career and his family background, this chapter explores how the begs’ interests in securing resources, labor, and silver set them on the path of a profitable partnership with the Qing Empire. At the center of this story was the presence of the Sufi migrants and their families, the mainstay of the pro-Qing begs. Sufi migrants’ interests in developing commercial agriculture in the oasis under the changing environment of trade in Eurasia spurred their settlement into Eastern Turkestan and into an alliance with the Qing also. They had experienced a crisis in the local political economy in the seventeenth century caused by a sudden, if temporary, decline in the Chinese tribute trade. In their view, an alliance with the Qing, especially one that provided a direct connection to the China market would be a solution to this problem.
- Published in print:
- 2013
- Published Online:
- June 2013
- ISBN:
- 9780804782241
- eISBN:
- 9780804785389
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Stanford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.11126/stanford/9780804782241.003.0003
- Subject:
- History, Asian History
This chapter discusses the case of “Hindustan” to explore evolving understandings of India in the middle of the Qianlong reign. Qianlong's passion for translation, transcription, and polyglot ...
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This chapter discusses the case of “Hindustan” to explore evolving understandings of India in the middle of the Qianlong reign. Qianlong's passion for translation, transcription, and polyglot research was his single greatest impact on the direction of official scholarship. It is noted that Hindustan seemed to be a protector or avenger of Burhan al-Din and Khwaja-i Jahan. Furthermore, Qianlong had acknowledged a phonetic link between the names Hindustan and India, but nonetheless maintained they were two different places. He was also equally careful to justify his own lack of contact with India. New intelligence near the end of his reign would contribute to the reversion of his opinion and he came to view Hindustan and India as one and the same place. There was no revolution in the empire's views of India in spite of the skillful intelligence gathering and great scholarly accomplishments of the Qianlong period.Less
This chapter discusses the case of “Hindustan” to explore evolving understandings of India in the middle of the Qianlong reign. Qianlong's passion for translation, transcription, and polyglot research was his single greatest impact on the direction of official scholarship. It is noted that Hindustan seemed to be a protector or avenger of Burhan al-Din and Khwaja-i Jahan. Furthermore, Qianlong had acknowledged a phonetic link between the names Hindustan and India, but nonetheless maintained they were two different places. He was also equally careful to justify his own lack of contact with India. New intelligence near the end of his reign would contribute to the reversion of his opinion and he came to view Hindustan and India as one and the same place. There was no revolution in the empire's views of India in spite of the skillful intelligence gathering and great scholarly accomplishments of the Qianlong period.
Daniel Gold
- Published in print:
- 2015
- Published Online:
- December 2014
- ISBN:
- 9780190212483
- eISBN:
- 9780190212513
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780190212483.003.0003
- Subject:
- Religion, Hinduism
The chapter explores some Sufi shrines in Gwalior and asks why Hindus go to them, particularly in an era that has seen the rise of Hindu nationalism. The chapter first looks briefly at Sufi shrines ...
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The chapter explores some Sufi shrines in Gwalior and asks why Hindus go to them, particularly in an era that has seen the rise of Hindu nationalism. The chapter first looks briefly at Sufi shrines as religious places, early Muslim rule in the area, and some possible significances of a Muslim saint for a Gwalior Hindu. It then focuses on a small but centrally located and very popular shrine called Mir Badshah, looking at its legendary relationship to the last ruling house, the Hindu Scindias, and its popular appeal despite the lack of any attested Sufi lineage. It is compared with Khwaja Khanoon, which has an old lineage, and with some other simple, less prestigious Sufi shrines. It concludes with an analysis of how the Muslim otherness of the shrine (and the qawwali music played there) might contribute to a Hindu’s perception of its power.Less
The chapter explores some Sufi shrines in Gwalior and asks why Hindus go to them, particularly in an era that has seen the rise of Hindu nationalism. The chapter first looks briefly at Sufi shrines as religious places, early Muslim rule in the area, and some possible significances of a Muslim saint for a Gwalior Hindu. It then focuses on a small but centrally located and very popular shrine called Mir Badshah, looking at its legendary relationship to the last ruling house, the Hindu Scindias, and its popular appeal despite the lack of any attested Sufi lineage. It is compared with Khwaja Khanoon, which has an old lineage, and with some other simple, less prestigious Sufi shrines. It concludes with an analysis of how the Muslim otherness of the shrine (and the qawwali music played there) might contribute to a Hindu’s perception of its power.
