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The Shadow of the Shackling Crisis, 1943

Neville Wylie

in Barbed Wire Diplomacy: Britain, Germany, and the Politics of Prisoners of War 1939-1945

This chapter traces Anglo‐German POW relations over 1943. It examines how the shackling crisis affected the two governments' attitudes towards the functioning of the POW regime, and emphasizes the ... More

This chapter traces Anglo‐German POW relations over 1943. It examines how the shackling crisis affected the two governments' attitudes towards the functioning of the POW regime, and emphasizes the sense of realism that entered German thinking in the light of the loss of Tunisia in early 1943 and the Allied landings in Italy later that summer. This led to a softening in German attitudes towards the repatriation of sick and wounded POWs and gave rise, in October, to the first of five Anglo‐German POW exchanges of the war. Britain's protecting power also began to occupy a more prominent place in British calculations: having proved its worth during the shackling crisis the previous winter, the Swiss government was called upon to help stem the gradual decline in camp conditions over the course of the year and hold Berlin to its responsibilities under the POW convention. By the end of the year, however, a noticeable brittleness had entered Anglo‐German POW relations, as the German authorities became increasingly security‐conscious and saw British POWs, especially escapers, as a threat to the Reich's internal security.Less

Emergencies

DAVID CLARK and GERARD McCOY

in The Most Fundamental Legal Right: Habeas Corpus in the Commonwealth

This chapter examines the situations in which emergency laws are invoked and the reduced scope for habeas corpus during those situations. It considers emergencies that are not necessarily called ... More

This chapter examines the situations in which emergency laws are invoked and the reduced scope for habeas corpus during those situations. It considers emergencies that are not necessarily called emergencies, for example, periods of war, and also covers the use of emergency laws that operate outside of states of emergency. These include situations where public order, preventive detention, or internal security laws coexist with the normal legal system. Special safeguards have been adopted in some jurisdictions in recognition of the potentially draconian nature of emergency laws — either in those laws themselves or in the constitution, to operate when these special or emergency laws operate. Most Commonwealth countries include in their written constitutions a chapter on emergencies, while countries without such provisions may deploy standing legislation specifically designed to govern emergencies. One of the characteristics of periods of emergency rule is mass arrests — and the subsequent discovery that many of the arrests were simply not justified or were based on the flimsiest of information.Less

A question of JHA objectives

David Brown

in The European Union, Counter Terrorism and Police Co-operation, 1991-2007: Unsteady Foundations?

This chapter analyses the Third Pillar in order to establish the broader context in which the European Union's (EU) progress in counter-terrorism and police co-operation is made. It examines the ... More

This chapter analyses the Third Pillar in order to establish the broader context in which the European Union's (EU) progress in counter-terrorism and police co-operation is made. It examines the proposed establishment of an ‘Area of Freedom, Security and Justice’, which has been the overall objective of all internal security co-operation since the Treaty of Amsterdam. This chapter suggests that the AFSJ failed to address fully the concerns of the Justice and Home Affairs (JHA) at the institutional level and argues that it will take significantly more political will than thus far been on show to overcome some of the outstanding conceptual questions regarding how the AFSJ can be successfully implemented.Less

Protective Security or Protection Rackets? War and Sovereignty

Mary Kaldor

in Arguments for a Better World: Essays in Honor of Amartya Sen, Volume 2: Society, Institutions, and Development

It is generally assumed that all forms of violence within the boundaries of the state are criminal and that the state guarantees internal security through the rule of law and policing. Externally, ... More

It is generally assumed that all forms of violence within the boundaries of the state are criminal and that the state guarantees internal security through the rule of law and policing. Externally, the state protects its citizens against foreign enemies using the military. This chapter suggests that the distinction between legitimate and illegitimate protection is breaking down because the traditional external role is no longer effective, and the distinction between inside and outside is becoming blurred. If states are to provide protective security, this is only possible, nowadays, within a multilateral framework in which protective security is something that every human being can expect and not just the citizens of some countries. In making this argument, the chapter starts by describing how contemporary war can be perceived as a protection racket and then consider the ways in which the distinction between legitimate and illegitimate protection is breaking down. In the final section, it discusses the prospects for reconstructing legitimacy around human or protective security.Less

Creating a ‘climate of victory’: Eisenhower and the Overseas Internal Security Program

in The evolving role of nation-building in US foreign policy: Lessons learned, lessons lost

Explores how security and stability within less developed countries became a central element of US security and ‘counter-subversion’ policy during the first Eisenhower administration. The chapter ... More

Explores how security and stability within less developed countries became a central element of US security and ‘counter-subversion’ policy during the first Eisenhower administration. The chapter also examines how US policy in decolonizing countries had to go beyond internal security to development and nation building. The events described herein represent Washington's first in-depth exploration into events and processes defining the decolonizing world, and how it formulated and modified its response, the NSC 1290-d or Overseas Internal Security Program.Less

Differentiated Integration of Core State Powers

Berthold Rittberger, Dirk Leuffen, and Frank Schimmelfennig

in Beyond the Regulatory Polity?: The European Integration of Core State Powers

A prominent feature of European integration is its differentiated character, which refers to a state of territorial or horizontal fragmentation across different policy areas. In a horizontally ... More

A prominent feature of European integration is its differentiated character, which refers to a state of territorial or horizontal fragmentation across different policy areas. In a horizontally fragmented polity, EU member states demand ‘opt-outs’ from sectoral policy integration, monetary integration being the prime example. Moreover, non-EU member states are granted participation in certain EU policy regimes, such as the Schengen area or the common market. Differentiated integration thus runs counter to the notion propagated by the EU’s ‘founding fathers’ of establishing an ‘ever closer union’ in which uniform integration among its member states would be the norm. This chapter first highlights the different patterns of differentiated integration between core state and non-core state powers. In a second step, the explanatory model developed by the editors is employed and adapted to explain patterns of differentiated horizontal integration by focusing on three instances of core state powers—monetary policy, defence policy and internal security—as well as market integration as a contrasting case of a non-core state power.Less

Alternative Perspectives on Internal Security Cooperation in the European Union: Setting the Scene

Raphael Bossong and Mark Rhinard

in Theorizing Internal Security in the European Union

European Union cooperation in the field of internal security can now be counted amongst the most established areas of European integration studies. This introductory chapter surveys the evolution of ... More

European Union cooperation in the field of internal security can now be counted amongst the most established areas of European integration studies. This introductory chapter surveys the evolution of academic research on this phenomenon across several disciplines and theoretical approaches. It first provides a pragmatic definition of ‘internal security’ and ‘theory’ for the purposes of the volume. The chapter then sketches research developments in the field from its early beginnings to the current diverse menu of approaches and agendas, organized in terms of their respective attention to the politics, policy, or the constitutional or polity-related effects of internal security cooperation. It is argued that the maturing field should endeavour to overcome this fragmented debate and identify opportunities for dialogue. The chapter concludes by introducing the individual contributions to this volume.Less

War and the Constitution: Abraham Lincoln and Franklin D. Roosevelt

Arthur M. Jr. Schlesinger

in The Gettysburg Lectures

This chapter gives a striking account of two American presidents who confronted national emergencies that demanded bold and preemptive action—Lincoln and Roosevelt. The chapter describes them as ... More

This chapter gives a striking account of two American presidents who confronted national emergencies that demanded bold and preemptive action—Lincoln and Roosevelt. The chapter describes them as mysterious, crafty, and ruthless as politicians, discussing significantly their policies at handling war-making power and internal security. Lincoln's involvement in the war was huge and he chose to act independently of the Congress. He exaggerated the threat to national security but the stakes were high as in the case of a foreign war in Roosevelt's time. Franklin Roosevelt's emergency was different in form but he was completely mindful of Congress. Amidst an utterly divided Congress, he pushed toward enacting the Lend-Lease bill that would align the United States in the most unequivocal manner with Britain in its war against the Axis states.Less

Policing the Insurgency: Police Administration and Internal Security in South Vietnam

Jessica Elkind

in Aid Under Fire: Nation Building and the Vietnam War

This chapter deals with American attempts to defend the fragile state in South Vietnam by enhancing its security forces.It focuses on conflicts between South Vietnamese officials and American ... More

This chapter deals with American attempts to defend the fragile state in South Vietnam by enhancing its security forces.It focuses on conflicts between South Vietnamese officials and American advisers, especially police specialists from Michigan State University and the US Operations Mission, over the relationship between security and the state.The story of US assistance to South Vietnam’s law enforcement organizations reveals clearly the disastrous consequences of American and South Vietnamese policy makers’ insistence on employing military solutions for political problems.Less

Next Steps in Theorizing Internal Security Cooperation in the EU

Raphael Bossong and Mark Rhinard

in Theorizing Internal Security in the European Union

The conclusions summarize the main themes of the volume and chart avenues for theoretical dialogue. It is argued that a possible ‘normalization’ of EU internal security cooperation has many and ... More

The conclusions summarize the main themes of the volume and chart avenues for theoretical dialogue. It is argued that a possible ‘normalization’ of EU internal security cooperation has many and contested implications for future research, ranging from increasing politicization to the extension of further political science theorizing applied to this area. At the same time, it is not possible to avoid the difficult question of the long-term trajectory or ‘finalité’ of integration in this issue area, which sheds new light on normative, ontological, and methodological differences between the different approaches assembled in this volume. Finally, the chapter points to a number of research gaps, such as the renewed importance of intergovernmentalism in European integration, and possible overlaps with other research debates, such as on crisis decision-making or the role of private actors.Less

Terrorism

O.P. Mishra

in Policing Delhi: Urbanization, Crime, and Law Enforcement

This chapter examines terrorism, which is considered to be one of the most serious challenges of internal security. It notes that the main goal of terrorism is to deter, frighten, terrify, and scare. ... More

This chapter examines terrorism, which is considered to be one of the most serious challenges of internal security. It notes that the main goal of terrorism is to deter, frighten, terrify, and scare. Looking at violence as the main method to create terror, various forms of terrorist violence are identified, as well as the two levels of terrorism (the specific level and the general level). The chapter looks at the different phases of terrorism in Delhi, including the early phase and the intermediate phase. It also discusses cyber terrorism, which is considered by the World Economic Forum as a global risk. In addition, the chapter throws light on modus operandi used by various terrorist groups. This is countered by sections on the proper responses to terrorism, specifically the preventive methods and strategies and the public-private partnership in combating terrorism.Less

Governance and EU Internal Security Cooperation

Raphael Bossong and Sandra Lavenex

in Theorizing Internal Security in the European Union

Governance is a frequently used concept to explore the various formats of EU internal security cooperation which do not correspond to formal legal or institutional integration. Building on the ... More

Governance is a frequently used concept to explore the various formats of EU internal security cooperation which do not correspond to formal legal or institutional integration. Building on the initial heuristic concept of ‘intensive transgovernmentalism’, governance research has shown how networks of executive actors and the extensive use of soft law led to a repressive bias in AFSJ policy outcomes. The approach also reveals how the EU’s external governance has been strongly shaped by internal security objectives, which in turn generate legitimacy concerns. Finally, the complementary notion of security governance underlines the increasing diversity of actors as well as complexity of objectives in this issue area, so that one can question the assumption of centralized steering and the plausibility of political accountability.Less

The “Third World War”: U.S.-Argentine Relations, 1960–1976

William Michael Schmidli

in The Fate of Freedom Elsewhere: Human Rights and U.S. Cold War Policy toward Argentina

This chapter looks at the U.S.-Argentine relations in 1960–1976. In the early 1960s, Argentine military leaders looked to the French, rather than the Americans, for military assistance and training. ... More

This chapter looks at the U.S.-Argentine relations in 1960–1976. In the early 1960s, Argentine military leaders looked to the French, rather than the Americans, for military assistance and training. Although recognizing the potential benefits of the Argentine–French anticommunist initiative, U.S. policymakers set out to significantly increase U.S. ties with the Argentine military, enticing the armed forces more fully into the internal security role envisioned by the Alliance for Progress. By the second half of the decade, the United States had displaced the French as the primary military influence on the Argentine armed forces and established a close relationship with the military government led by the army commander in chief Juan Carlos Onganía. As Cold War ties between the two nations solidified, U.S. military training and aid played a defining role in the formulation of the Argentine military’s national security doctrine.Less

EU Internal Security Cooperation after Four Decades: Observations and Reflections

Jörg Monar

in Theorizing Internal Security in the European Union

This chapter provides a wider historical perspective of internal security cooperation in Europe since 1975 before reviewing the specificity of this policy field in comparison with other areas of EU ... More

This chapter provides a wider historical perspective of internal security cooperation in Europe since 1975 before reviewing the specificity of this policy field in comparison with other areas of EU integration. This specificity is primarily due to its focus on internal security as a fundamental public good traditionally under the exclusive competence of the nation-state, along with its implications for the rights of the individual. The latter part of the chapter identifies five factors which primarily account for the dynamic evolution of internal security cooperation: the growth of common threat perceptions, the perceived need to take common compensatory action for the increased permeability of internal borders within the EU, the perception of EU enlargement as an internal security challenge, specific national concerns of certain member states, and, finally, the roles, interests, and agendas of the EU institutions and agencies.Less

An Introduction to European Security Law

Martin Trybus and Nigel D White

in European Security Law

This book considers the political and legal development of European security as understood in its external aspects — security from threats and attacks — rather than what could be called internal ... More

This book considers the political and legal development of European security as understood in its external aspects — security from threats and attacks — rather than what could be called internal security or police matters. It discusses the origins and future of European security integration and the elements of the current European security policy. It also explores the consistency of the European security framework.Less

Looking back, looking forward

David Brown

in The European Union, Counter Terrorism and Police Co-operation, 1991-2007: Unsteady Foundations?

This chapter considers first fifteen years of internal security co-operation, both within the Third Pillar more widely and more specifically in terms of developments in police co-operation and ... More

This chapter considers first fifteen years of internal security co-operation, both within the Third Pillar more widely and more specifically in terms of developments in police co-operation and counter terrorism. It suggests that despite the positive record found in terms of Europol's development, the EU's wider record of converting its occasionally inflated rhetoric into practical reality is sadly insubstantial. This chapter highlights the lack of clarity in the objectives of police co-operation and counter terrorism and the difference between means and ends in relation to the development of the Area of Freedom, Security and Justice (AFSJ). It speculates on the future of the Third Pillar and suggests that EU should work towards steadying the existing foundations of internal security co-operation and building both greater credibility and legitimacy in this area.Less

Social Structure, Ethnicity, and Military Effectiveness: Iraq, 1980–2004

Timothy D. Hoyt

in Creating Military Power: The Sources of Military Effectiveness

This chapter investigates the effect of government policies intended to control internal division on overall military effectiveness. It specifically addresses the case of Iraq from 1980 to 2004. This ... More

This chapter investigates the effect of government policies intended to control internal division on overall military effectiveness. It specifically addresses the case of Iraq from 1980 to 2004. This case indicates that there is a distinct trade-off between improving military effectiveness and preserving internal security. Iraq was involved in three major wars from 1980 to 2004: the Iran-Iraq War (1980–88), the 1991 Persian Gulf War, and the 2003 U.S. war. The Iraq case supports the hypothesis that discrimination in training and education does adversely influence military skill and quality. Discrimination also harmed the capacity of the military to respond quickly to developments on the battlefield. In general, the Iraq case shows that discrimination on ethnic grounds can significantly affect the ability to mobilize resources in war, and policies that are less discriminatory appear to mobilize resources more efficiently and to create higher levels of military effectiveness.Less