Steven A. Bank
- Published in print:
- 2010
- Published Online:
- May 2010
- ISBN:
- 9780195326192
- eISBN:
- 9780199775811
- Item type:
- book
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195326192.001.0001
- Subject:
- Law, Legal History
The U.S. corporate income tax — and in particular the double taxation of corporate income — has long been one of the most criticized and stubbornly persistent aspects of the federal revenue system. ...
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The U.S. corporate income tax — and in particular the double taxation of corporate income — has long been one of the most criticized and stubbornly persistent aspects of the federal revenue system. Unlike in most other industrialized countries, corporate income is taxed twice, first at the entity level and again at the shareholder level when distributed as a dividend. The conventional wisdom has been that this double taxation was part of the system's original design over a century ago and has survived despite withering opposition from business interests. In both cases, history tells another tale. Double taxation as it is known today did not appear until several decades after the corporate income tax was first adopted. Moreover, it was embraced by corporate representatives at the outset and in subsequent years businesses have been far more ambivalent about its existence than is popularly assumed. From Sword to Shield: The Transformation of the Corporate Income Tax, 1861 to Present is the first historical account of the evolution of the corporate income tax in America. It explains the origins of corporate income tax and the political, economic, and social forces that transformed it from a sword against evasion of the individual income tax to a shield against government and shareholder interference with the management of corporate funds.Less
The U.S. corporate income tax — and in particular the double taxation of corporate income — has long been one of the most criticized and stubbornly persistent aspects of the federal revenue system. Unlike in most other industrialized countries, corporate income is taxed twice, first at the entity level and again at the shareholder level when distributed as a dividend. The conventional wisdom has been that this double taxation was part of the system's original design over a century ago and has survived despite withering opposition from business interests. In both cases, history tells another tale. Double taxation as it is known today did not appear until several decades after the corporate income tax was first adopted. Moreover, it was embraced by corporate representatives at the outset and in subsequent years businesses have been far more ambivalent about its existence than is popularly assumed. From Sword to Shield: The Transformation of the Corporate Income Tax, 1861 to Present is the first historical account of the evolution of the corporate income tax in America. It explains the origins of corporate income tax and the political, economic, and social forces that transformed it from a sword against evasion of the individual income tax to a shield against government and shareholder interference with the management of corporate funds.
Andrew Crawley
- Published in print:
- 2007
- Published Online:
- January 2010
- ISBN:
- 9780199212651
- eISBN:
- 9780191707315
- Item type:
- book
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199212651.001.0001
- Subject:
- History, Latin American History
Franklin Roosevelt's good neighbour policy, coming in the wake of decades of U.S. intervention in Central America, and following a lengthy U.S. military occupation of Nicaragua, marked a significant ...
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Franklin Roosevelt's good neighbour policy, coming in the wake of decades of U.S. intervention in Central America, and following a lengthy U.S. military occupation of Nicaragua, marked a significant shift in U.S. policy towards Latin America. Its basic tenets were non-intervention and non-interference. The period was exceptionally significant for Nicaragua, as it witnessed the creation and consolidation of the Somoza government — one of Latin America's most enduring authoritarian regimes, which endured from 1936 to the Sandinista revolution in 1979. Addressing the political, diplomatic, military, commercial, financial, and intelligence components of U.S. policy, this book analyses the background to the U.S. military withdrawal from Nicaragua in the early 1930s. It assesses the motivations for Washington's policy of disengagement from international affairs, and the creation of the Nicaraguan National Guard, as well as debating U.S. accountability for what the Guard became under Somoza. The book challenges the conventional theory that Somoza's regime was a creature of Washington. It was U.S. non-intervention, not interference, the book argues, that enhanced the prospects of tyranny.Less
Franklin Roosevelt's good neighbour policy, coming in the wake of decades of U.S. intervention in Central America, and following a lengthy U.S. military occupation of Nicaragua, marked a significant shift in U.S. policy towards Latin America. Its basic tenets were non-intervention and non-interference. The period was exceptionally significant for Nicaragua, as it witnessed the creation and consolidation of the Somoza government — one of Latin America's most enduring authoritarian regimes, which endured from 1936 to the Sandinista revolution in 1979. Addressing the political, diplomatic, military, commercial, financial, and intelligence components of U.S. policy, this book analyses the background to the U.S. military withdrawal from Nicaragua in the early 1930s. It assesses the motivations for Washington's policy of disengagement from international affairs, and the creation of the Nicaraguan National Guard, as well as debating U.S. accountability for what the Guard became under Somoza. The book challenges the conventional theory that Somoza's regime was a creature of Washington. It was U.S. non-intervention, not interference, the book argues, that enhanced the prospects of tyranny.
Anthony James Leggett
- Published in print:
- 2006
- Published Online:
- January 2008
- ISBN:
- 9780198526438
- eISBN:
- 9780191711954
- Item type:
- book
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780198526438.001.0001
- Subject:
- Physics, Condensed Matter Physics / Materials
Starting from first principles, this book introduces the closely related phenomena of Bose condensation and Cooper pairing, in which a very large number of single particles or pairs of particles are ...
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Starting from first principles, this book introduces the closely related phenomena of Bose condensation and Cooper pairing, in which a very large number of single particles or pairs of particles are forced to behave in exactly the same way. Their consequences in condensed matter systems are also explored. Eschewing advanced formal methods, the book uses simple concepts and arguments to account for the various qualitatively new phenomena which occur in Bose-condensed and Cooper-paired systems, including but not limited to the spectacular macroscopic phenomena of superconductivity and superfluidity. The physical systems discussed include liquid 4-He, the BEC alkali gases, “classical” superconductors, superfluid 3-He, “exotic” superconductors, and the recently stabilized Fermi alkali gases.Less
Starting from first principles, this book introduces the closely related phenomena of Bose condensation and Cooper pairing, in which a very large number of single particles or pairs of particles are forced to behave in exactly the same way. Their consequences in condensed matter systems are also explored. Eschewing advanced formal methods, the book uses simple concepts and arguments to account for the various qualitatively new phenomena which occur in Bose-condensed and Cooper-paired systems, including but not limited to the spectacular macroscopic phenomena of superconductivity and superfluidity. The physical systems discussed include liquid 4-He, the BEC alkali gases, “classical” superconductors, superfluid 3-He, “exotic” superconductors, and the recently stabilized Fermi alkali gases.
Cécile Fabre
- Published in print:
- 2006
- Published Online:
- May 2006
- ISBN:
- 9780199289998
- eISBN:
- 9780191603556
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/0199289999.003.0005
- Subject:
- Philosophy, Moral Philosophy
This chapter argues that the duty of assistance includes a duty to make some of one’s body parts available, before death, to those who need them. It claims that however demanding such duty may seem ...
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This chapter argues that the duty of assistance includes a duty to make some of one’s body parts available, before death, to those who need them. It claims that however demanding such duty may seem at first sight, it can be delineated in such a way as to preserve the interest of the healthy in living a minimally flourishing life.Less
This chapter argues that the duty of assistance includes a duty to make some of one’s body parts available, before death, to those who need them. It claims that however demanding such duty may seem at first sight, it can be delineated in such a way as to preserve the interest of the healthy in living a minimally flourishing life.
GARY TAYLOR and JOHN JOWETT
- Published in print:
- 1993
- Published Online:
- September 2011
- ISBN:
- 9780198122562
- eISBN:
- 9780191671470
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780198122562.003.0001
- Subject:
- Literature, Shakespeare Studies
As an author's work may be reshaped either by the author himself or by other people, we realize that the Shakespeare canon has undergone both types of reshaping, and these are not easily ...
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As an author's work may be reshaped either by the author himself or by other people, we realize that the Shakespeare canon has undergone both types of reshaping, and these are not easily differentiated. Even if textual critics may either associate textual variants to the revisions of Shakespeare's works or the interference of other parties, we should be able to arrive at a consensus. Some of Shakespeare's works might have been reshaped by political interventions such as how the Master of Revels had to give license to the performed plays. The crucial factors that brought about significant effects on some of the revivals of these plays include the adding of large numbers of actors, the introducing of actresses and the proscenium arch, and improvements in both lighting and stage scenery. Textual scholars have attempted to evaluate thoroughly the compositors and scribes who have transmitted early texts of such works. This book deals with essays that explain the use of act-divisions, restricting profanity, and the interpolation of un-Shakespearian texts.Less
As an author's work may be reshaped either by the author himself or by other people, we realize that the Shakespeare canon has undergone both types of reshaping, and these are not easily differentiated. Even if textual critics may either associate textual variants to the revisions of Shakespeare's works or the interference of other parties, we should be able to arrive at a consensus. Some of Shakespeare's works might have been reshaped by political interventions such as how the Master of Revels had to give license to the performed plays. The crucial factors that brought about significant effects on some of the revivals of these plays include the adding of large numbers of actors, the introducing of actresses and the proscenium arch, and improvements in both lighting and stage scenery. Textual scholars have attempted to evaluate thoroughly the compositors and scribes who have transmitted early texts of such works. This book deals with essays that explain the use of act-divisions, restricting profanity, and the interpolation of un-Shakespearian texts.
F. H. Buckley
- Published in print:
- 2009
- Published Online:
- May 2009
- ISBN:
- 9780195341263
- eISBN:
- 9780199866892
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195341263.003.0011
- Subject:
- Law, Philosophy of Law
This chapter summarizes the book's argument. It begins by redefining liberalism and a liberal, the latter which is defined as one who believes that people's preferences are prima facie worthy of ...
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This chapter summarizes the book's argument. It begins by redefining liberalism and a liberal, the latter which is defined as one who believes that people's preferences are prima facie worthy of respect. It is down to the paternalist or perfectionist to tell people why freedom should be curtailed. The book has examined different arguments for interfering with people's preferences. The book's main thesis is that a balance between paternalist and antipaternalist arguments, and perfectionist and antiperfectionalist arguments is needed.Less
This chapter summarizes the book's argument. It begins by redefining liberalism and a liberal, the latter which is defined as one who believes that people's preferences are prima facie worthy of respect. It is down to the paternalist or perfectionist to tell people why freedom should be curtailed. The book has examined different arguments for interfering with people's preferences. The book's main thesis is that a balance between paternalist and antipaternalist arguments, and perfectionist and antiperfectionalist arguments is needed.
Eric Post
- Published in print:
- 2013
- Published Online:
- October 2017
- ISBN:
- 9780691148472
- eISBN:
- 9781400846139
- Item type:
- book
- Publisher:
- Princeton University Press
- DOI:
- 10.23943/princeton/9780691148472.001.0001
- Subject:
- Biology, Ecology
Rising temperatures are affecting organisms in all of Earth's biomes, but the complexity of ecological responses to climate change has hampered the development of a conceptually unified treatment of ...
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Rising temperatures are affecting organisms in all of Earth's biomes, but the complexity of ecological responses to climate change has hampered the development of a conceptually unified treatment of them. In a remarkably comprehensive synthesis, this book presents past, ongoing, and future ecological responses to climate change in the context of two simplifying hypotheses, facilitation and interference, arguing that biotic interactions may be the primary driver of ecological responses to climate change across all levels of biological organization. The author's synthesis and analyses of ecological consequences of climate change extend from the Late Pleistocene to the present, and through the next century of projected warming. The book's investigation is grounded in classic themes of enduring interest in ecology, but developed around novel conceptual and mathematical models of observed and predicted dynamics. Using stability theory as a recurring theme, the book argues that the magnitude of climatic variability may be just as important as the magnitude and direction of change in determining whether populations, communities, and species persist. It urges a more refined consideration of species interactions, emphasizing important distinctions between lateral and vertical interactions and their disparate roles in shaping responses of populations, communities, and ecosystems to climate change.Less
Rising temperatures are affecting organisms in all of Earth's biomes, but the complexity of ecological responses to climate change has hampered the development of a conceptually unified treatment of them. In a remarkably comprehensive synthesis, this book presents past, ongoing, and future ecological responses to climate change in the context of two simplifying hypotheses, facilitation and interference, arguing that biotic interactions may be the primary driver of ecological responses to climate change across all levels of biological organization. The author's synthesis and analyses of ecological consequences of climate change extend from the Late Pleistocene to the present, and through the next century of projected warming. The book's investigation is grounded in classic themes of enduring interest in ecology, but developed around novel conceptual and mathematical models of observed and predicted dynamics. Using stability theory as a recurring theme, the book argues that the magnitude of climatic variability may be just as important as the magnitude and direction of change in determining whether populations, communities, and species persist. It urges a more refined consideration of species interactions, emphasizing important distinctions between lateral and vertical interactions and their disparate roles in shaping responses of populations, communities, and ecosystems to climate change.
Philip Pettit
- Published in print:
- 1999
- Published Online:
- November 2003
- ISBN:
- 9780198296423
- eISBN:
- 9780191600081
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/0198296428.003.0002
- Subject:
- Political Science, Political Theory
The negative conception of freedom as non‐interference and the positive conception of freedom as self‐mastery are not the only available ideals of liberty; a third alternative is the conception of ...
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The negative conception of freedom as non‐interference and the positive conception of freedom as self‐mastery are not the only available ideals of liberty; a third alternative is the conception of freedom as non‐domination, which requires that no one is able to interfere on an arbitrary basis— at their pleasure—in the choices of the free person. This is the conception espoused in the long republican tradition. Thus republicans regarded all of those who are subject to another's arbitrary will as unfree, even if the other does not actually interfere with them; there is no interference in such a case but there is a loss of liberty. And, in cases where a regime of law did not subject people to an arbitrary will, they thought that legal coercion was not a compromise of people's liberty; there is interference in such a case but no loss of liberty. As the conception of freedom as non‐interference was introduced by Hobbes to defend Leviathan against republicans, it was used to defend British rule in the North American colonies against the republican criticism that Parliament had arbitrary power over the colonists. This new conception became respectable through the work of people like Bentham and Paley, who saw in it a way of conceiving of freedom that would allow even dominated agents like women and servants—so far as they did not suffer actual interference —to count as free. Unlike traditional republicans, Bentham and Paley did not feel able to limit the constituency of citizens to the mainstream, propertied males, and their inclusivism in this respect, which neo‐republicans must also share, may explain why they regarded the republican ideal of freedom too demanding.Less
The negative conception of freedom as non‐interference and the positive conception of freedom as self‐mastery are not the only available ideals of liberty; a third alternative is the conception of freedom as non‐domination, which requires that no one is able to interfere on an arbitrary basis— at their pleasure—in the choices of the free person. This is the conception espoused in the long republican tradition. Thus republicans regarded all of those who are subject to another's arbitrary will as unfree, even if the other does not actually interfere with them; there is no interference in such a case but there is a loss of liberty. And, in cases where a regime of law did not subject people to an arbitrary will, they thought that legal coercion was not a compromise of people's liberty; there is interference in such a case but no loss of liberty. As the conception of freedom as non‐interference was introduced by Hobbes to defend Leviathan against republicans, it was used to defend British rule in the North American colonies against the republican criticism that Parliament had arbitrary power over the colonists. This new conception became respectable through the work of people like Bentham and Paley, who saw in it a way of conceiving of freedom that would allow even dominated agents like women and servants—so far as they did not suffer actual interference —to count as free. Unlike traditional republicans, Bentham and Paley did not feel able to limit the constituency of citizens to the mainstream, propertied males, and their inclusivism in this respect, which neo‐republicans must also share, may explain why they regarded the republican ideal of freedom too demanding.
Philip Pettit
- Published in print:
- 1999
- Published Online:
- November 2003
- ISBN:
- 9780198296423
- eISBN:
- 9780191600081
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/0198296428.003.0003
- Subject:
- Political Science, Political Theory
Interference involves an intentional or quasi‐intentional worsening of someone's choice situation and occurs on an arbitrary basis to the extent that it is not forced to track the interests and ideas ...
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Interference involves an intentional or quasi‐intentional worsening of someone's choice situation and occurs on an arbitrary basis to the extent that it is not forced to track the interests and ideas of those who suffer the interference. One party dominates another just so far as they have the capacity to interfere on an arbitrary basis in some of the other's choices; where such domination occurs, it will tend to be a matter of common knowledge among relevant parties but that is not part of the definition. Domination in the sense defined may occur without actual interference: it requires only the capacity for interference; and interference may occur without any domination: if the interference is not arbitrary then it will not dominate. Non‐domination may be advanced in a society either through people coming to have equal powers, or through a legal regime stopping people from dominating one another without itself dominating anyone in turn. When someone enjoys non‐domination, it will usually be a matter of common knowledge among relevant parties, so that non‐domination has a subjective and inter‐subjective aspect: it is associated with tranquillity, in Montesquieu's phrase, and with the ability to look others in the eye. Notwithstanding the allegations of Paley and early liberals, freedom as non‐domination is not a confused ideal, it comes in degrees both of intensity and extent, and it is not an impossibly radical ideal; the rich demands that it would make on the state look capable of being satisfied in our world, even if they were not capable of satisfaction in Paley's.Less
Interference involves an intentional or quasi‐intentional worsening of someone's choice situation and occurs on an arbitrary basis to the extent that it is not forced to track the interests and ideas of those who suffer the interference. One party dominates another just so far as they have the capacity to interfere on an arbitrary basis in some of the other's choices; where such domination occurs, it will tend to be a matter of common knowledge among relevant parties but that is not part of the definition. Domination in the sense defined may occur without actual interference: it requires only the capacity for interference; and interference may occur without any domination: if the interference is not arbitrary then it will not dominate. Non‐domination may be advanced in a society either through people coming to have equal powers, or through a legal regime stopping people from dominating one another without itself dominating anyone in turn. When someone enjoys non‐domination, it will usually be a matter of common knowledge among relevant parties, so that non‐domination has a subjective and inter‐subjective aspect: it is associated with tranquillity, in Montesquieu's phrase, and with the ability to look others in the eye. Notwithstanding the allegations of Paley and early liberals, freedom as non‐domination is not a confused ideal, it comes in degrees both of intensity and extent, and it is not an impossibly radical ideal; the rich demands that it would make on the state look capable of being satisfied in our world, even if they were not capable of satisfaction in Paley's.
William Bain
- Published in print:
- 2003
- Published Online:
- April 2004
- ISBN:
- 9780199260263
- eISBN:
- 9780191600975
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/0199260265.003.0001
- Subject:
- Political Science, International Relations and Politics
Begins by giving an outline of the idea of trusteeship as presented by P. H. Kerr, and then as viewed against a background of the opposite idea—that of liberty, as considered by J. S. Mill. It states ...
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Begins by giving an outline of the idea of trusteeship as presented by P. H. Kerr, and then as viewed against a background of the opposite idea—that of liberty, as considered by J. S. Mill. It states the purpose of the book is to interrogate the character of trusteeship as an idea of international society, to investigate the assumptions, claims, and justifications that render it intelligible as a recognized and settled mode of human conduct in international life. It contends that the character of trusteeship is discernible in full relief at the intersection of two dispositions of human conduct: the good of assisting persons in need, and the good of respecting human autonomy. The first part of the chapter is a general discussion of the idea of trusteeship in contemporary international society, and it ends by commenting that, since the 11 September attacks, there is very little about the Bush administration's claims that would be out of place in the age of empire—an age in which trusteeship was the most obvious outward manifestation of a similarly righteous mission to propagate the virtue of civilization and to eradicate its enemies. The remaining three sections of the chapter discuss the idiom of Oakeshottian conversation in which the book is written, the international society/English School theoretical tradition in which the book is situated, and the character of trusteeship, which is intelligible in a particular relation of virtue, inequality, and tutelage.Less
Begins by giving an outline of the idea of trusteeship as presented by P. H. Kerr, and then as viewed against a background of the opposite idea—that of liberty, as considered by J. S. Mill. It states the purpose of the book is to interrogate the character of trusteeship as an idea of international society, to investigate the assumptions, claims, and justifications that render it intelligible as a recognized and settled mode of human conduct in international life. It contends that the character of trusteeship is discernible in full relief at the intersection of two dispositions of human conduct: the good of assisting persons in need, and the good of respecting human autonomy. The first part of the chapter is a general discussion of the idea of trusteeship in contemporary international society, and it ends by commenting that, since the 11 September attacks, there is very little about the Bush administration's claims that would be out of place in the age of empire—an age in which trusteeship was the most obvious outward manifestation of a similarly righteous mission to propagate the virtue of civilization and to eradicate its enemies. The remaining three sections of the chapter discuss the idiom of Oakeshottian conversation in which the book is written, the international society/English School theoretical tradition in which the book is situated, and the character of trusteeship, which is intelligible in a particular relation of virtue, inequality, and tutelage.
Geir Lundestad
- Published in print:
- 2003
- Published Online:
- April 2004
- ISBN:
- 9780199266685
- eISBN:
- 9780191601057
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/0199266689.003.0001
- Subject:
- Political Science, International Relations and Politics
The first section of the Introduction presents the main arguments of the book, which the author describes as fairly simple. He indicates that while focusing on the overall issue of cooperation versus ...
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The first section of the Introduction presents the main arguments of the book, which the author describes as fairly simple. He indicates that while focusing on the overall issue of cooperation versus conflict in American–Western European relations, the book represents an extension of his ‘“Empire” by invitation’ thesis as presented in earlier works. The first argument deals with the position of the US, which was unique in 1945, in that no other Great Power had ever had such a vast lead over its potential competitors; on the basis of this strength American influence expanded in most parts of the world—certainly in Western Europe, so that it could be argued that Western Europe became part of an American sphere of influence, even an American ‘empire’. The second argument presented relates to the ambivalent attitudes of the Western Europeans towards the US: in the early years after 1945 the Western Europeans needed to involve the Americans in the affairs of their continent, and it can be argued that they invited them in. In the 1950s, there were many references to the need for Atlantic integration, but also complaints about US ‘interference’, so that it was paradoxical that when, at the end of the Cold War, the US reduced its presence in Europe, the Western Europeans reissued the old invitations, although in modified form. The second section of the Introduction provides a perspective on and details of literature about the US and Western Europe after 1945. The third and fourth sections discuss first cooperation, and then conflict, between the US and Western Europe.Less
The first section of the Introduction presents the main arguments of the book, which the author describes as fairly simple. He indicates that while focusing on the overall issue of cooperation versus conflict in American–Western European relations, the book represents an extension of his ‘“Empire” by invitation’ thesis as presented in earlier works. The first argument deals with the position of the US, which was unique in 1945, in that no other Great Power had ever had such a vast lead over its potential competitors; on the basis of this strength American influence expanded in most parts of the world—certainly in Western Europe, so that it could be argued that Western Europe became part of an American sphere of influence, even an American ‘empire’. The second argument presented relates to the ambivalent attitudes of the Western Europeans towards the US: in the early years after 1945 the Western Europeans needed to involve the Americans in the affairs of their continent, and it can be argued that they invited them in. In the 1950s, there were many references to the need for Atlantic integration, but also complaints about US ‘interference’, so that it was paradoxical that when, at the end of the Cold War, the US reduced its presence in Europe, the Western Europeans reissued the old invitations, although in modified form. The second section of the Introduction provides a perspective on and details of literature about the US and Western Europe after 1945. The third and fourth sections discuss first cooperation, and then conflict, between the US and Western Europe.
Roger W Shuy
- Published in print:
- 2011
- Published Online:
- January 2012
- ISBN:
- 9780199795383
- eISBN:
- 9780199919314
- Item type:
- book
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199795383.001.0001
- Subject:
- Linguistics, Sociolinguistics / Anthropological Linguistics
This book describes the contributions of linguistics to the intelligence gathering and analysis in the legal context by showing the way evidence is analyzed in eleven perjury cases. Beginning with a ...
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This book describes the contributions of linguistics to the intelligence gathering and analysis in the legal context by showing the way evidence is analyzed in eleven perjury cases. Beginning with a brief review of perjury law, it shows how the meaning of lexicon, grammatical structures, and ambiguities are important in such cases, stressing that it would be prudent for prosecutors and defense attorneys alike to begin their review in such cases with the larger units of language, by identifying the speech event, the schemas of the participants, the agendas of the participants as revealed by the topics they introduce and the responses they make to the topics of others. Other smaller language units, such as potentially ambiguous expressions, grammatical referencing, and lexical choices, which are often considered “smoking gun” evidence, often can be better understood when seen in the larger context of the overall discourse. The book suggests that in perjury cases both the prosecution and defense can use many of the tools of linguistics that may be relatively unknown to the legal profession. It further urges that often lawyers would be prudent to call on linguists to help them whether for the prosecution or defense. Eight of the case examples describe the inadequate intelligence gathering and analysis by the prosecution and the use of linguistic tools to resolve these problems. The other three cases show how district attorneys and judges repaired failed intelligence analyses.Less
This book describes the contributions of linguistics to the intelligence gathering and analysis in the legal context by showing the way evidence is analyzed in eleven perjury cases. Beginning with a brief review of perjury law, it shows how the meaning of lexicon, grammatical structures, and ambiguities are important in such cases, stressing that it would be prudent for prosecutors and defense attorneys alike to begin their review in such cases with the larger units of language, by identifying the speech event, the schemas of the participants, the agendas of the participants as revealed by the topics they introduce and the responses they make to the topics of others. Other smaller language units, such as potentially ambiguous expressions, grammatical referencing, and lexical choices, which are often considered “smoking gun” evidence, often can be better understood when seen in the larger context of the overall discourse. The book suggests that in perjury cases both the prosecution and defense can use many of the tools of linguistics that may be relatively unknown to the legal profession. It further urges that often lawyers would be prudent to call on linguists to help them whether for the prosecution or defense. Eight of the case examples describe the inadequate intelligence gathering and analysis by the prosecution and the use of linguistic tools to resolve these problems. The other three cases show how district attorneys and judges repaired failed intelligence analyses.
Graham Bell
- Published in print:
- 2007
- Published Online:
- May 2008
- ISBN:
- 9780198569725
- eISBN:
- 9780191717741
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780198569725.003.0003
- Subject:
- Biology, Evolutionary Biology / Genetics
The mechanism of evolutionary change can be studied directly through selection experiments in laboratory microcosms. This chapter begins by describing the experimental approach to evolution, and goes ...
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The mechanism of evolutionary change can be studied directly through selection experiments in laboratory microcosms. This chapter begins by describing the experimental approach to evolution, and goes on to analyse adaptation over different time scales. The first section in this chapter is about microcosmologica. Subsections here concern Dallinger's experiment; the laboratory microcosm; the inhabitants of the microcosm; the selection experiment; fitness and adaptedness; and microcosm genealogy. The second section is all about sorting (in other words selection of pre-existing variation) and includes subsection on a single episode of selection; the sorting of a single type; the mixture of discrete types; the Fundamental Theorem of Natural Selection; the sorting in finite populations; drift and selection; and fluctuating population size. The third section is on purifying selection (defined as maintaining adaptedness despite genetic deterioration) and this section discusses the following: mutation-drift balance; mutation-selection equilibrium; and Muller's Ratchet. The fourth section is about directional selection (this is restoring adaptedness despite environmental deterioration) and details the probability that a beneficial mutation will be fixed; periodic selection; Fisher's geometrical analogy; the variable-mutation model; the extreme-value mode; clonal interference; the distribution of fitness effects; genetic interference; and the genetic basis of adaptation. The fifth section is about successive substitution and includes detail on phenotypic evolution towards the optimum; adaptive walks; transitivity; and clonal interference. The sixth section, Cumulative adaptation, includes the following: the protein matrix; connectance; synthetic beneficial mutations; functional interaction in a protein structure; the evolution of RNA sequences; reversibility; cumulation; cumulative construction of novel amidases; diminishing returns; and contingency. The last section called Successive substitution at several loci explains genetic interactions; the adaptive landscape; the allele matrix; compensatory mutations; compound structures; processing chains; the effect of mutation in a simple processing chain; the pattern of adaptation; the evolution of metabolic pathways; in vitro selection; genetic changes during adaptation; and repeated adaptation.Less
The mechanism of evolutionary change can be studied directly through selection experiments in laboratory microcosms. This chapter begins by describing the experimental approach to evolution, and goes on to analyse adaptation over different time scales. The first section in this chapter is about microcosmologica. Subsections here concern Dallinger's experiment; the laboratory microcosm; the inhabitants of the microcosm; the selection experiment; fitness and adaptedness; and microcosm genealogy. The second section is all about sorting (in other words selection of pre-existing variation) and includes subsection on a single episode of selection; the sorting of a single type; the mixture of discrete types; the Fundamental Theorem of Natural Selection; the sorting in finite populations; drift and selection; and fluctuating population size. The third section is on purifying selection (defined as maintaining adaptedness despite genetic deterioration) and this section discusses the following: mutation-drift balance; mutation-selection equilibrium; and Muller's Ratchet. The fourth section is about directional selection (this is restoring adaptedness despite environmental deterioration) and details the probability that a beneficial mutation will be fixed; periodic selection; Fisher's geometrical analogy; the variable-mutation model; the extreme-value mode; clonal interference; the distribution of fitness effects; genetic interference; and the genetic basis of adaptation. The fifth section is about successive substitution and includes detail on phenotypic evolution towards the optimum; adaptive walks; transitivity; and clonal interference. The sixth section, Cumulative adaptation, includes the following: the protein matrix; connectance; synthetic beneficial mutations; functional interaction in a protein structure; the evolution of RNA sequences; reversibility; cumulation; cumulative construction of novel amidases; diminishing returns; and contingency. The last section called Successive substitution at several loci explains genetic interactions; the adaptive landscape; the allele matrix; compensatory mutations; compound structures; processing chains; the effect of mutation in a simple processing chain; the pattern of adaptation; the evolution of metabolic pathways; in vitro selection; genetic changes during adaptation; and repeated adaptation.
Graham Bell
- Published in print:
- 2007
- Published Online:
- May 2008
- ISBN:
- 9780198569725
- eISBN:
- 9780191717741
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780198569725.003.0008
- Subject:
- Biology, Evolutionary Biology / Genetics
Selection in complex and structured environments is likely to cause the divergence of differently adapted lines. This will lead to a diverse array of specialized types, or to one or a few broad ...
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Selection in complex and structured environments is likely to cause the divergence of differently adapted lines. This will lead to a diverse array of specialized types, or to one or a few broad generalists, or to some intermediate situation. The first section in this chapter is called GxE and details the ecogenetic landscape; the magnitude of GxE; inconsistency and responsiveness; the genetic correlation in relation to environmental variance; the outcome of selection in different environments; stability and responsiveness; and the evolution of stability and responsiveness. The second section is about specialization and generalization, and details niche separation; the cost of adaptation; divergent specialization; sources of antagonism: functional interference; sources of antagonism: mutational degradation; and the consequences of interference and degradation. It also gives an experimental adaptive radiation regarding pseudomonas and an historical adaptive radiation concerning anolis. The third section called Opportunities in space, obligations in time, explains simple environments; complex environments; the cost of adaptation in complex environments; structured environments; the outcome of selection in structured environments; fluctuating fitness; and the outcome of selection in variable environments. The final section is called Local adaptation and details the precision of local adaptation and gives reciprocal transplant experiments.Less
Selection in complex and structured environments is likely to cause the divergence of differently adapted lines. This will lead to a diverse array of specialized types, or to one or a few broad generalists, or to some intermediate situation. The first section in this chapter is called GxE and details the ecogenetic landscape; the magnitude of GxE; inconsistency and responsiveness; the genetic correlation in relation to environmental variance; the outcome of selection in different environments; stability and responsiveness; and the evolution of stability and responsiveness. The second section is about specialization and generalization, and details niche separation; the cost of adaptation; divergent specialization; sources of antagonism: functional interference; sources of antagonism: mutational degradation; and the consequences of interference and degradation. It also gives an experimental adaptive radiation regarding pseudomonas and an historical adaptive radiation concerning anolis. The third section called Opportunities in space, obligations in time, explains simple environments; complex environments; the cost of adaptation in complex environments; structured environments; the outcome of selection in structured environments; fluctuating fitness; and the outcome of selection in variable environments. The final section is called Local adaptation and details the precision of local adaptation and gives reciprocal transplant experiments.
Laura Valentini
- Published in print:
- 2011
- Published Online:
- January 2012
- ISBN:
- 9780199593859
- eISBN:
- 9780191731457
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199593859.003.0004
- Subject:
- Political Science, Political Theory
This chapter discusses the complaint that the statist ideal is excessively biased in favour of the status quo and argues that this critique is only partly successful. While the statists’ (especially ...
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This chapter discusses the complaint that the statist ideal is excessively biased in favour of the status quo and argues that this critique is only partly successful. While the statists’ (especially Rawls’s) refusal to extend egalitarian justice to the global realm does not in itself indicate subservience to the status quo, statist principles have unduly conservative implications because they are insufficiently sensitive to morally relevant phenomena characterizing the global realm. Although statists rightly identify peoples (states) as important subjects of international justice in virtue of the particular forms of coercive power they exercise by directly interfering in one another’s affairs, they fail to appreciate that these are not the only forms of international coercion in need of justification. Because the normative outlook underpinning Rawlsian statism is blind to these other potential sources of injustice, its principles may very well turn out to be status-quo biased and, therefore, rightly criticized on guidance grounds.Less
This chapter discusses the complaint that the statist ideal is excessively biased in favour of the status quo and argues that this critique is only partly successful. While the statists’ (especially Rawls’s) refusal to extend egalitarian justice to the global realm does not in itself indicate subservience to the status quo, statist principles have unduly conservative implications because they are insufficiently sensitive to morally relevant phenomena characterizing the global realm. Although statists rightly identify peoples (states) as important subjects of international justice in virtue of the particular forms of coercive power they exercise by directly interfering in one another’s affairs, they fail to appreciate that these are not the only forms of international coercion in need of justification. Because the normative outlook underpinning Rawlsian statism is blind to these other potential sources of injustice, its principles may very well turn out to be status-quo biased and, therefore, rightly criticized on guidance grounds.
Laura Valentini
- Published in print:
- 2011
- Published Online:
- January 2012
- ISBN:
- 9780199593859
- eISBN:
- 9780191731457
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199593859.003.0007
- Subject:
- Political Science, Political Theory
This chapter discusses how to move from a general concern with the justification of coercion to particular substantive principles of justice. It argues that a social system is just only so long as it ...
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This chapter discusses how to move from a general concern with the justification of coercion to particular substantive principles of justice. It argues that a social system is just only so long as it respects the right to freedom of those subject to it, namely their right to the social conditions necessary to lead autonomous lives. For this to be the case, the distribution of freedom engendered by the system has to be justifiable in the eyes of all those who are subject to it. Focusing on domestic societies in particular, the chapter concludes that a multiplicity of principles of economic justice might instantiate mutually justifiable distributions of freedom, not all of which are egalitarian in form. In other words, contrary to most contemporary liberal theorists’ arguments on the view defended in this chapter, economic equality is not a fundamental, non-negotiable demand of justice.Less
This chapter discusses how to move from a general concern with the justification of coercion to particular substantive principles of justice. It argues that a social system is just only so long as it respects the right to freedom of those subject to it, namely their right to the social conditions necessary to lead autonomous lives. For this to be the case, the distribution of freedom engendered by the system has to be justifiable in the eyes of all those who are subject to it. Focusing on domestic societies in particular, the chapter concludes that a multiplicity of principles of economic justice might instantiate mutually justifiable distributions of freedom, not all of which are egalitarian in form. In other words, contrary to most contemporary liberal theorists’ arguments on the view defended in this chapter, economic equality is not a fundamental, non-negotiable demand of justice.
Peter McCullagh
- Published in print:
- 2005
- Published Online:
- September 2007
- ISBN:
- 9780198566540
- eISBN:
- 9780191718038
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780198566540.003.0005
- Subject:
- Mathematics, Probability / Statistics
This chapter explores the relation between exchangeability, a concept from stochastic processes, and regression models in which the observed process is modulated by a covariate. A stochastic process ...
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This chapter explores the relation between exchangeability, a concept from stochastic processes, and regression models in which the observed process is modulated by a covariate. A stochastic process is a collection of random variables, usually an infinite set, though not necessarily an ordered sequence. A process is said to be exchangeable if each finite-dimensional distribution is symmetric, or invariant under coordinate permutation. Regression models are statistical models for dependence, specifying the way in which a response variable depends on known explanatory variables or factors. The role of exchangeability is explored in a range of regression models, including generalized linear models, biased-sampling models, block factors and random-effects models, models for spatial dependence, and growth-curve models. Causal inference, counterfactuals, and its relation to exchangeability are discussed.Less
This chapter explores the relation between exchangeability, a concept from stochastic processes, and regression models in which the observed process is modulated by a covariate. A stochastic process is a collection of random variables, usually an infinite set, though not necessarily an ordered sequence. A process is said to be exchangeable if each finite-dimensional distribution is symmetric, or invariant under coordinate permutation. Regression models are statistical models for dependence, specifying the way in which a response variable depends on known explanatory variables or factors. The role of exchangeability is explored in a range of regression models, including generalized linear models, biased-sampling models, block factors and random-effects models, models for spatial dependence, and growth-curve models. Causal inference, counterfactuals, and its relation to exchangeability are discussed.
J. C. Garrison and R. Y. Chiao
- Published in print:
- 2008
- Published Online:
- September 2008
- ISBN:
- 9780198508861
- eISBN:
- 9780191708640
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780198508861.003.0011
- Subject:
- Physics, Atomic, Laser, and Optical Physics
This chapter presents experiments employing the optical devices described in Chapter 8 and the detection schemes discussed in Chapter 9. Single-photon interference — described by a first-order ...
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This chapter presents experiments employing the optical devices described in Chapter 8 and the detection schemes discussed in Chapter 9. Single-photon interference — described by a first-order correlation function — is destroyed by measurements yielding “which-path” information. The Hanbury Brown-Twiss effect is described by a second-order (intensity-intensity) correlation function. Two-photon interference is observed with the Hong-Ou-Mandel (HOM) interferometer, in which a pair of photons interfere at a single beam splitter. In the Franson interferometer, the interference occurs between photons at spatially separated beam splitters. The HOM effect is used to measure the propagation speed of a single photon in a dielectric medium and the tunneling speed across an optical barrier. Similar techniques show that the mere possibility of observing which-path information destroys single-photon interference, even if no measurements are actually made.Less
This chapter presents experiments employing the optical devices described in Chapter 8 and the detection schemes discussed in Chapter 9. Single-photon interference — described by a first-order correlation function — is destroyed by measurements yielding “which-path” information. The Hanbury Brown-Twiss effect is described by a second-order (intensity-intensity) correlation function. Two-photon interference is observed with the Hong-Ou-Mandel (HOM) interferometer, in which a pair of photons interfere at a single beam splitter. In the Franson interferometer, the interference occurs between photons at spatially separated beam splitters. The HOM effect is used to measure the propagation speed of a single photon in a dielectric medium and the tunneling speed across an optical barrier. Similar techniques show that the mere possibility of observing which-path information destroys single-photon interference, even if no measurements are actually made.
Sönke Johnsen
- Published in print:
- 2011
- Published Online:
- October 2017
- ISBN:
- 9780691139906
- eISBN:
- 9781400840663
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Princeton University Press
- DOI:
- 10.23943/princeton/9780691139906.003.0010
- Subject:
- Biology, Evolutionary Biology / Genetics
This concluding chapter explains that the modern theory of light falls within the field of quantum mechanics. At first glance, quantum mechanics does not seem that strange—its name is based on the ...
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This concluding chapter explains that the modern theory of light falls within the field of quantum mechanics. At first glance, quantum mechanics does not seem that strange—its name is based on the fact that light comes in units and that electrons have discrete energy states. It also includes the uncertainty principle, which states that one cannot know certain pairs of physical properties with perfect precision. Moreover, quantum mechanics involves the wave-particle duality of photons. The chapter then explores two of the most unusual aspects of quantum mechanics: two-slit interference and quantum entanglement. Both violate the most fundamental notions about how the world works.Less
This concluding chapter explains that the modern theory of light falls within the field of quantum mechanics. At first glance, quantum mechanics does not seem that strange—its name is based on the fact that light comes in units and that electrons have discrete energy states. It also includes the uncertainty principle, which states that one cannot know certain pairs of physical properties with perfect precision. Moreover, quantum mechanics involves the wave-particle duality of photons. The chapter then explores two of the most unusual aspects of quantum mechanics: two-slit interference and quantum entanglement. Both violate the most fundamental notions about how the world works.
Anna Wierzbicka
- Published in print:
- 2006
- Published Online:
- September 2007
- ISBN:
- 9780195174748
- eISBN:
- 9780199788514
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195174748.003.0006
- Subject:
- Linguistics, English Language
While it is generally agreed that, metaphorically speaking, words are carriers of meaning, it is less widely recognized that grammatical categories of a language, too, encode meaning. But in fact ...
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While it is generally agreed that, metaphorically speaking, words are carriers of meaning, it is less widely recognized that grammatical categories of a language, too, encode meaning. But in fact this is what grammar is all about: certain meanings are so important to communities of speakers that they become not just lexicalized (linked with individual words) but grammaticalized, that is, embodied in the language's structural patterns. In this chapter, the theme of the “cultural elaboration of grammar” is applied to English causative constructions. The chapter seeks to show that English has an extremely wide range of such constructions (not only in comparison with other European languages but also from a universal perspective). This wealth is concealed, to some extent, by the use of the same key words such as make, have, or let in many different constructions, all of which may appear to be examples of a single “make construction”, “have construction”, or “let construction”. In fact, there are reasons to distinguish, on both semantic and structural grounds many different, “make constructions”, “have constructions”, and “let constructions”. This chapter seeks to clarify, by means of “NSM”, the precise nature of causal relations encoded in English grammar and to compare them with those encoded in German and Russian. It also seeks to explore the cultural roots of this extraordinary elaboration of causation in modern English grammar. A number of interpretive hypotheses are put forward, linking grammar with different patterns of social interaction, the rise of democracy, and with changing attitudes and values.Less
While it is generally agreed that, metaphorically speaking, words are carriers of meaning, it is less widely recognized that grammatical categories of a language, too, encode meaning. But in fact this is what grammar is all about: certain meanings are so important to communities of speakers that they become not just lexicalized (linked with individual words) but grammaticalized, that is, embodied in the language's structural patterns. In this chapter, the theme of the “cultural elaboration of grammar” is applied to English causative constructions. The chapter seeks to show that English has an extremely wide range of such constructions (not only in comparison with other European languages but also from a universal perspective). This wealth is concealed, to some extent, by the use of the same key words such as make, have, or let in many different constructions, all of which may appear to be examples of a single “make construction”, “have construction”, or “let construction”. In fact, there are reasons to distinguish, on both semantic and structural grounds many different, “make constructions”, “have constructions”, and “let constructions”. This chapter seeks to clarify, by means of “NSM”, the precise nature of causal relations encoded in English grammar and to compare them with those encoded in German and Russian. It also seeks to explore the cultural roots of this extraordinary elaboration of causation in modern English grammar. A number of interpretive hypotheses are put forward, linking grammar with different patterns of social interaction, the rise of democracy, and with changing attitudes and values.
