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This chapter is concerned with the non‐finite complementation of hear‐class verbs in structures such as we saw her cross the road. These structures present a number of theoretical challenges which are addressed here in terms of the WG network. The differences between infinitival and participial non‐finite clauses, the interaction between the different senses of see and the infinitival clauses, and the ontological nature of the percept are all discussed; a solution to the ungrammaticality of *he was seen cross the road is also offered. There is also an account of the widely discussed properties of veridicality and exportability displayed by these structures.

The chapter illustrates the methodological and substantial progress that has been made in cross-cultural studies on implicit motives. After introducing a multiculture and multivariate approach in conducting research, methodological means to remedy bias in measurements across cultural groups are addressed. Thereafter, cross-cultural research on implicit motives at the collective and individual level is critically evaluated. It is argued that research on implicit motives across cultural groups is indispensable to the understanding of universal and culture-specific variations in individuals’ mental processes and behavioral acts.

This chapter identifies two distinct analytic levels — the ‘individual’ and the ‘social’ — for defining and explaining individual disease outcomes and population patterns of health and disease. It argues that there are two distinct levels of analysis and corresponding causal pathways, which explain different sets of processes. The mechanisms that occur at the individual level, which lead to disease, are real, as are the consequences of pathologies in the human body. The mechanisms which operate at the social level are also real and so too are their consequences. These mechanisms operating at the individual and the social levels are, however, analytically separate, and make different epistemological assumptions.

Experimental results are reported from Ultimatum and Public Goods Games performed among the Machiguenga of the Peruvian Amazon, the Mapuche and Huinca of southern Chile, and US control groups in Los Angeles and Ann Arbor (Michigan). The chapter begins with a brief ethno‐historical sketch of the Machiguenga, Mapuche, and Huinca, then the Ultimatum Game methodologies used are sketched and the results presented. Next, the Public Goods Game methodologies used are described, and those results presented – first for the Machiguenga/American comparison and then for the Mapuche/Huinca experiment. Three findings are emphasized: first, results from both the Ultimatum (bargaining) and Public Goods Games indicate much greater between‐group variation than previous work has suggested; second, if individual economic decisions vary as a consequence of differences in individuals’ circumstances, then variables such as wealth, household size, age, and sex should provide some explanatory power, but in fact individual‐level economic and demographic variables do not account for much, if any, of the variation found; and finally, despite the failure of individual‐level variables to explain variation, the results seem to reflect group‐level differences in the economic life of these groups, as captured in numerous ethnographic accounts. Some theoretical and methodological points related to the findings conclude the chapter.

This chapter discusses ecological studies, which examine exposure-disease associations among groups of people. In other words, they seek to determine how the frequency of exposure in each of several groups is related to the frequency of disease in that group. Topics covered include levels of measurement, studying effects of individual-level exposures, studying effects of group-level exposures, and studying exposures at two or more levels at once. Exercises are provided at the end of the chapter.

This chapter discusses two topics related to health inequalities: the measurement of health inequality and social inequalities as determinants of health status. It suggests an alternative framework for studying health inequality, wherein ‘health inequality’ refers to the variation in health status across individuals in a population. This is a use distinct from the concept of health inequalities used in studies of health differences between social groups. The use of ‘health inequality’ to refer to a composite measure of individual-level variation is consistent with other disciplines studying inequality across individuals.

This chapter focuses on European citizens’ informal engagement with politics by considering the extent to which they discuss politics with other people and/or attempt to persuade them to change their political views. It uses Eurobarometer and European Social Survey data from 1975 to 2007 to explore the individual-level and macro-structural determinants of people’s informal engagement with the political process. Although there has been a clear decline in voter turnout in national elections across the EU since the early 1960s, citizens in many EU countries have, if anything, become more engaged in informal political activity. The empirical results reported show that at the individual level informal political engagement is strongly affected by gender, labour market position, and left-right ideology. In terms of macro-level effects, engagement is affected by the condition of the domestic economy, by the quality of the domestic democratic process, and by the size of the EU’s net contributions to the respondent’s country. The reported results also show that large-scale changes in the international system can invoke a temporary but significant increase in informal political engagement among mass publics. Controlling for a wide range other factors, the end of the Cold War appears to have produced a discernable increase in political discussion and persuasion between 1990 and 1993.

This chapter presents the results of the empirical analysis of levels and sources of citizen support for democratic and autocratic regimes. The analysis proceeds in three steps. First, it compares the levels of regime support in democracies and autocracies. It shows that levels of citizen support, while varying considerably across individual countries, are roughly equal between democratic and autocratic regimes. Second, the analysis investigates the individual-level sources of regime support. It finds evidence that the same set of individual-level sources affect regime support in democracies and autocracies and that they do so in virtually the same way across regimes. Third, it addresses the system-level sources of regime support in democracies and autocracies. Using multilevel structural equation modeling, it observes effects of three of the four system-level sources in both types of regimes; yet, these system-level sources do not affect regime support in the same way in democracies as in autocracies.

This chapter presents systematic evidence that decentralized, commercially sophisticated ports were preferred by the English Company. The data on Company trading voyages show that they spent more time in and had longer trading partnerships with ports that were already set up to accommodate the commercial interests of both the Company and employees. These data also cast doubt upon theories that English trade patterns in Asia were driven by the presence of other Europeans. The central finding, however, is that Asian merchants and the commercial institutions they had created before the arrival of the British played a vital role in the expansion of England into the East through their support of decentralized market exchange. Thus the institutional context of the organization in the societies with which it came into contact must also be considered in order to understand the full range of options for individual-level actions.

This chapter discusses value processes operating at individual and country-level. First, it reviews evidence that individual-level values are more clearly organized in economically advanced societies, suggesting qualitative differences in values due to economic opportunities for growth and self-expression. It highlights how these processes have implications for correlations with third variables (e.g. attitudes & behaviours) and suggests new methods for investigating these contextual influences. Moving to the link between individual and country-level values, available evidence suggests that values are widely shared among individuals in modern societies, while not demonstrating large cultural differences. This raises questions about apparent differences in value structures between the individual and country level (lack of isomorphism). The chapter discusses methodological and conceptual reasons why values may appear different at the country compared with the individual level. Integrating research on equivalence at the individual level with multi-level questions about isomorphism, it proposes two new hypotheses (motivational and institutional value differentiation).

What can the material culture of Greek sanctuaries tell us on the one hand about ritual activities and on the other about civic concerns, social customs, and phenomena from which such activities originated–in sum the form and content of the religious festivities? The purpose is to look at some of the restrictions and the potentials of the material culture, not to make a complete study of the material groups found in one specific sanctuary or in sanctuaries in general. The discussions will centre on archaeological material belonging both at the communal level (seen from both a synchronic and diachronic point of view) and the individual level: the first will reveal mostly matters of form, the second matters of content. The presentation can thus at times have the character of disjecta membra, but as a faint leitmotif the Panathenaic festival at Athens shall be used.

This chapter talks about research findings and observations of methods in which the HIV epidemic has infected gay and bisexual individuals and communities, and public representations of homosexuality. The effect of AIDS is reflected through gay communities at the individual level, social level, community level, and societal level. At the individual level, there are variations in the attitudes, behaviors, and well-being of bisexual and gay men. At the social level, variations are found in social networks, interpersonal relations, and social norms. Meanwhile, the structure of gay communities, institutions, and their bearings are influenced at the community level while the relationship of the community with the larger society is particularly affected at the societal level. Many of the studies conducted are done with white male participants mainly residing in large American urban cities.

Chapter 2 focuses on residents of Iwate, Miyagi, and Fukushima Prefectures, drawing on interviews with residents, NGO staff, and decision makers from across Tōhoku to understand both survival (and mortality) and recovery (and stagnation). Even relatively isolated individuals who had altruistic, involved neighbors found themselves being rescued from water-trapped cars and roofs, while those with a sense of community and place returned as quickly as possible to start rebuilding. Students from the high school in Taro, for example, carried the elderly on their own backs out of homes and shelters to keep them safe

This chapter develops an explanatory model of regime support applicable to both democracies and autocracies. The explanatory model includes both individual- and system-level determinants and explicates how these interact in shaping regime support. On the individual-level, it integrates culturalist and institutionalist explanations of support to arrive at five central sources of regime support: political value orientations, societal value orientations, incumbent support, democratic performance evaluations, and systemic performance evaluations. On the system level, it draws on social psychological theories of attitude formation and identifies four sources of regime support: macro-cultural context, macro-political context, actual systemic performance, and level of socioeconomic modernization. Recurring to the fundamental differences between democracies and autocracies, the explanatory model expects the individual-level processes forming regime support to be universal across regime types, but effects of system-level sources of regime support to vary between democracies and autocracies, due to indoctrination and propaganda distorting the attitude-formation process in autocracies.

China's outstanding health achievements before the 1980s and rapid economic growth over the past decade are well documented. Less well known, however, is the impact of the transition from a socialist to a market economy on overall health development and equity in health and health care. This chapter presents an analysis of inequities in health in China, covering inter-regional and gender inequities in adult life expectancy at an individual and an ecological level. It addresses the overarching question of whether economic growth has yielded improved health status for all, or only for some. The chapter ends with a consideration of the policy implications of their findings.

This chapter discusses the development of positive psychology, tracing its growth from 1999 to 2009. It then speculates on the future of positive psychology. In the United States, positive psychology's most salient reference point in applied psychology has been clinical; as a result, the field has been fastest to respond to the demand for interventions targeted at the direct increase of individual well-being, for example, through coaching and personal exercises. In the positive psychology community as a whole, it seems clear that the future of applied work will encompass both these interventions at the individual level and the institutional and aggregate level.

The international donor community has long held that governments' failure to confront the HIV pandemic and take clear steps aimed at its prevention and control, are key to understanding the severity of today's crisis. The evidence shows that donors themselves did not adequately prioritize and provide effective, timely leadership to tackle the pandemic. Donor aid and the way it was delivered were often donor-driven, short-term programmes, often lacking community participation, and they were evaluated in terms of inputs or disbursements. Donor initiatives may have actually reduced access to goods and services aimed at the prevention and treatment of HIV at the individual and community levels. Similarly, efforts by the international research community in dealing with issues like an HIV vaccine, a ‘social vaccine’ and inequalities in global research spending suggests the response to the pandemic was belated, underfunded and undermined by institutional constraints and the pursuit of Northern agendas over Southern needs.

This chapter presents a review of research in the area of organizational performance in India during the last decade, which has become a challenge for organizations and management researchers. The chapter begins with a critical analysis of the nature of performance measurement and associated challenges. Next, it summarizes the research that has linked individual-level, group-level, and organization-level variables to organizational performance. The theoretical and conceptual contributions, limitations, gaps, and the scope of future research in the field are presented by the contributors. Finally, a multi-level model has been presented that provides a process framework, which links antecedent variables to organizational performance. The framework provides a set of working hypotheses for future organizational performance research in the Indian context.

Epilogue synthesizes the entire analyses. It discusses the meanings of the observations in terms of the Jews’ vitality and particularity. En passant, it also glances at the American religious scene at large.

This chapter explains the methods by which a consumption tax could be achieved at the individual level. These methods are the consumed income tax and yield exemption, that is, the exclusion from tax of investment earnings. These systems look deceptively similar to the current personal income tax, Form 1040 and all. As a result, the psychological transition to either of them would be quite easy. In addition, because the tax is imposed on individuals under both of these alternatives, both can readily be made progressive, which has been an important feature in our tax system. The chapter uses a numerical example to demonstrate how each of the alternative methods operates, which allows for easy comparison between alternatives. The chapter compiles the results of the example into one table for easy reference.