Search Results

Community ecology meets epidemiology: the case of Lyme disease

Richard Ostfeld, Felicia Keesing, and Katheleen Lo Giudice

in Disease Ecology: Community structure and pathogen dynamics

A single case of Lyme disease involves at least six species: the human patient, the bacterial pathogen, the tick vector, and a vertebrate host for each of the three blood-feeding life stages of the ... More

A single case of Lyme disease involves at least six species: the human patient, the bacterial pathogen, the tick vector, and a vertebrate host for each of the three blood-feeding life stages of the tick. Each of these six species potentially interacts with one another and with other species within their communities. Disease systems also involve a larger network of species that play indirect but critical roles in determining disease risk. Both mammal species richness and species composition are critical to the prevalence of Lyme disease in northeastern US forests, and the functional roles of particular species often depends on the composition of the remaining community.Less

Constructing a Supranational Constitution

Alec Stone Sweet

in Governing with Judges: Constitutional Politics in Europe

The sources and consequences of constructing a supranational constitution in Europe are traced. The relationship between private litigants, national judges, and the European Court of Justice has been ... More

The sources and consequences of constructing a supranational constitution in Europe are traced. The relationship between private litigants, national judges, and the European Court of Justice has been central to this process. Thus, the ECJ fashioned a judicially enforceable constitution out of international treaty law—a unique achievement that is shown to have fundamentally transformed the European polity in the process in a multitude of ways.Less

What We Have Learned? Directions for Future Research and Policy

Joanne Savage

in The Development of Persistent Criminality

This chapter integrates what was learned from the chapters of the book with the scholarly literature and propose suggestions for future research and policy. The chapter encourages future researchers ... More

This chapter integrates what was learned from the chapters of the book with the scholarly literature and propose suggestions for future research and policy. The chapter encourages future researchers to study topics such as early onset and family factors in greater depth, so we can understand the meaning of their impact. Examples are provided. The chapter discusses situational factors such as family and neighborhoods, and peers. Nuances, such as interaction effects, indirect effects, and reciprocal causation, are emphasized. Several issues, which are often overlooked, such as resilience and reentry, are explored as well as avenues for conceptualizing the problem of persistent offending more holistically. Here, the chapter recommends some links to developmental psychology. Finally, the chapter discusses policy implications including interventions, developmental prevention, criminal justice intervention, and informal social control.Less

Subtidal Kelp-Associated Communities off the Temperate Chilean Coast

José M. Fariña, Alvaro T. Palma, and F. Patricio Ojeda

in Food Webs and the Dynamics of Marine Reefs

The chapter describes the oceanography, biogeography, and the important role that the El Niño cycle plays in Chilean kelp forest ecology. The structure of the food web from primary producers to ... More

The chapter describes the oceanography, biogeography, and the important role that the El Niño cycle plays in Chilean kelp forest ecology. The structure of the food web from primary producers to consumers is described and the potential effect of the artisanal fishery and effect of the loss of kelp forests on the on the food web and fishery are discussed.Less

Causal Inference in Perinatal Epidemiology: Revisiting the Birth Weight Paradox

Enrique F. Schisterman and Robert W. Platt

in Reproductive and Perinatal Epidemiology

Does smoking cause neonatal mortality? Understanding causation is essential to inform the creation of effective interventions aimed at improving human health. Causal diagrams in the form of directed ... More

Does smoking cause neonatal mortality? Understanding causation is essential to inform the creation of effective interventions aimed at improving human health. Causal diagrams in the form of directed acyclic graphs (DAGs) have changed the way we approach causal inference. This chapter provides an overview of causal thinking and the use of DAGs in helping to design etiologically-oriented epidemiologic research. It introduces the theory of DAGs, and adjustment for variables when estimating total effects, and when estimating direct and indirect effects is discussed. The “birth weight paradox” is used to illustrate the relevancy of causal analysis to reproductive and perinatal epidemiology. DAGs are used to help estimate different effects, to explain why z-scores remove the crossing of curves, and to help define overadjustment. DAGs provide a tool to aid in formulation of a research question and its accompanying analytic plan, and hence help ensure that the intended question is answered and the science interpreted within a formalized causal paradigm.Less

The effects of others’ genes: maternal and other indirect genetic effects

Andrew G. McAdam, Dany Garant, and Alastair J. Wilson

in Quantitative Genetics in the Wild

An individual’s phenotype may frequently be affected by the phenotypes (and hence genotypes) of other individuals with whom it interacts. Phenotypic effects that are caused by the genotype of another ... More

An individual’s phenotype may frequently be affected by the phenotypes (and hence genotypes) of other individuals with whom it interacts. Phenotypic effects that are caused by the genotype of another individual are referred to as indirect genetic effects, and these can have large and sometimes counterintuitive effects on evolutionary dynamics. Despite their potential importance, studies of indirect genetic effects in the wild are still rare. One class of indirect effect that has been investigated more commonly in natural populations is the effects of mothers on the phenotypes of their offspring. Maternal effects are defined as the contribution that a mother makes to the phenotypes of her offspring beyond the direct inheritance of genes from mother to offspring. Maternal effects have been widely studied phenotypically, and genetic variation in many important maternal traits has been quantified in the wild but rarely in the context of the indirect effects of this genetic variation on offspring traits. As a result, the importance of maternal genetic effects for evolutionary dynamics remains largely unexplored. This chapter provides conceptual background to the importance of maternal effects for evolution, and an overview of the various methods that can be employed to quantify maternal effects in the wild. Finally, this chapter provides some examples of important emerging questions in the field that could most rapidly advance our understanding of the importance of indirect genetic effects for evolutionary dynamics in the wild.Less

The Theory of Multilevel Selection

Charles Goodnight

in The Theory of Evolution: Principles, Concepts, and Assumptions

This chapter explores the modeling of multilevel selection (MLS) – and the related concepts of group selection and kin selection – using variance partitioning methods, using the Price equation to ... More

This chapter explores the modeling of multilevel selection (MLS) – and the related concepts of group selection and kin selection – using variance partitioning methods, using the Price equation to elucidate basic issues within MLS theory. An expansion of this theory, based on contextual analysis and direct fitness, is used to show that kin selection and MLS selection have the same mathematical roots, although they are not identical. Kin selection theory is oriented towards identifying the optimal group and individual level traits that maximize the fitness of an organism, while MLS theory is oriented towards identifying the rate of evolution of the group and individual level traits in a specified situation. Because of these differences, kin selection and group selection can be considered as complementary approaches. The chapter also addresses why heritable variation at one level often bears little relation to heritable variation at other levels. It is shown that interactions among units (e.g., individuals) cannot contribute to a response to selection at that level, but can contribute to response to selection at a higher level (e.g., the population). Thus, the response to selection at one level can be qualitatively different than the response to selection at other levels.Less

Breathlessness in advanced cancer

Deborah Dudgeon

in Dyspnoea in Advanced Disease: A guide to clinical management

Dyspnoea is a common symptom in patients with cancer, but it is often overlooked. Breathlessness can significantly increase morbidity in patients with advanced diseases. Dyspnoea is chronic with ... More

Dyspnoea is a common symptom in patients with cancer, but it is often overlooked. Breathlessness can significantly increase morbidity in patients with advanced diseases. Dyspnoea is chronic with cancer patients experiencing heightened shortness of breath, which is usually accompanied by fear, panic, anxiety, and a sensation of impending death. Generally, discomfort in breathing is aggravated by emotions and activities, resulting in a reduction in the activities of patients in order to cope with the symptom. In addition, dyspnoea also affects the mood, relationships, and outlook of the patient towards life. Patients experiencing shortness of breath often exhibit a reduced will to live. This chapter discusses the epidemiology, pathophysiology, and syndromes of breathlessness prevalent in patients with advanced cancer. Determination of these factors is crucial in the development of management methods for this symptom. In this chapter, the four common causes of dyspnoea in cancer patients are examined. These are: direct tumour effects (pleural effusion, pericardial effusion, super vena cava syndrome), indirect tumour effects (muscle weakness, pulmonary eboli, infection), treatment-related effects (surgery, radiation therapy, systematic therapy), and problems unrelated to cancer (pre-existing diseases such as COPD, asthma, chest-wall deformity, obesity).Less

Species interactions in ecological networks

Gary G. Mittelbach and Brian J. McGill

in Community Ecology

This chapter explores ecological networks and their properties. Ecological networks summarize the many potential interactions between species within a community by representing species as nodes in ... More

This chapter explores ecological networks and their properties. Ecological networks summarize the many potential interactions between species within a community by representing species as nodes in the network and using links between nodes to represent the interactions between species. The earliest and best-studied ecological networks are food webs that describe who eats whom within a community (trophic links). Most food webs contain a few strong and many weak links between species; the preponderance of weak links promotes food web stability. Body size is a key trait in determining the pattern and strength of trophic interactions in food webs. Mutualistic networks describe the positive interactions between species in a community, where patterns of species associations may be characterized as either “nested” or “modular”. Nestedness may increase stability in mutualistic networks. A major challenge to future research is to incorporate multiple types of species interactions into the same ecological network.Less

The quantitative genetic theory of parental effects

Jarrod Hadfield

in The Evolution of Parental Care

This chapter provides a tutorial-style review of quantitative genetic models involving parental effects, with special emphasis on the meaning of the selection parameters and how they should be ... More

This chapter provides a tutorial-style review of quantitative genetic models involving parental effects, with special emphasis on the meaning of the selection parameters and how they should be interpreted in a behavioural ecology or life-history context. It argues that the selection parameters have often been misunderstood by theoreticians and incorrectly estimated by empiricists, and in light of this, new theoretical results and reinterpretations of entrenched ideas are given. It explores the connection between parental effect models and the wider class of indirect genetic effect models, and highlights the difficulties that arise when interacting individuals are parents and offspring. It concludes with a summary of outstanding theoretical and empirical problems, and a discussion of recent and possible statistical developments that provide a good balance between what is empirically possible and what is theoretically reasonable.Less

On the (In)compatibility of Human Rights Discourse and Private Law

Hugh Collins

in Constitutionalization of European Private Law: XXII/2

Having assessed the growing impact of human rights law on private law in many jurisdictions, the first question is how to best understand the constitutional relationship between public and private ... More

Having assessed the growing impact of human rights law on private law in many jurisdictions, the first question is how to best understand the constitutional relationship between public and private law in the context of the horizontal impact of human rights on parties to private or commercial transactions. It is argued that whatever the constitutional framework adopted, human rights should only be permitted an indirect effect on the evolution of private law and should not be permitted to create directly effective rights. Since both parties to private law disputes may invoke rights, there is a need to balance rights, which, it is argued, should proceed under a double proportionality test. It is doubted whether the impact of human rights is likely to strengthen the interests of weaker parties in contractual disputes, but in general the application of rights to private law is welcomed because it is likely to promote a positive conception of freedom or autonomy.Less

Applied Structural Equation Modeling for Cross-Cultural Comparison

Thanh V. Tran and Keith T. Chan

in Applied Cross-Cultural Data Analysis for Social Work

In this chapter, we focus on the use of Structural Equation Modeling (SEM) to compare path models across two or more cultural groups. SEM can be used to test the goodness of fit of a causal model, as ... More

In this chapter, we focus on the use of Structural Equation Modeling (SEM) to compare path models across two or more cultural groups. SEM can be used to test the goodness of fit of a causal model, as well as to test equivalence of causal relationships among variables of interest across various cultural groups. We will demonstrate SEM through the use of Stata for these purposes. We begin with a rationale for path mode analysis, move on to provide context for the construction of theories in path models using SEM, and provide examples of SEM models for various cultural groups for comparison. We provide examples of Stata commands for examining differences in direct and indirect effects along with goodness of fit statistics across various cultural groups using SEM.Less

What Is Group Selection?

Michael J. Wade

in Adaptation in Metapopulations: How Interaction Changes Evolution

In this chapter, the efficacy of group selection and the debates over it role, if any, in natural populations is discussed from the perspective of two different contexts. One debate is centered on ... More

In this chapter, the efficacy of group selection and the debates over it role, if any, in natural populations is discussed from the perspective of two different contexts. One debate is centered on the existence of group adaptations. Individuals are deconstructed into their component adaptations and, for each such trait, the question is asked, “Who benefits?” If a trait benefits individuals, then it evolved as an adaptation for individuals by individual selection. If it is a trait that benefits groups, then it evolved as an adaptation for groups by group selection. The second debate is based in evolutionary genetics and multilevel selection with its roots in quantitative genetics and animal breeding. The genetic basis of a response to individual or group selection is important to one context but not to the other.Less

Article 288 TFEU

Marcus Klamert and Paul-John Loewenthal

in The EU Treaties and the Charter of Fundamental Rights: A Commentary

Article 249 EC To exercise the Union’s competences, the institutions shall adopt regulations, directives, decisions, recommendations and opinions.

General Principles of Law and Other Foundational Legal Concepts Potentially Arising in CARICOM and the OECS

David S Berry

in Caribbean Integration Law

Chapter 8 scrutinizes some of the general principles and other foundational legal concepts which exist in or may be derived from the RTC and RTB, including: conferral (attributed competence), direct ... More

Chapter 8 scrutinizes some of the general principles and other foundational legal concepts which exist in or may be derived from the RTC and RTB, including: conferral (attributed competence), direct applicability, direct effect, indirect effect, supremacy, pre-emption, state liability, non-discrimination, most favoured nation treatment, cooperation, consultation, human rights, the need for reasons, and proportionality. It examines the role of direct effect in shaping EU law and suggests a similar potential in both CARICOM and the OECS if the general principle is fully implemented in those legal systems. It examines the more limited scope for indirect effect in the Caribbean, especially in light of the rules related to unincorporated treaties in common law legal systems. It highlights the key potentials of the general principles of state liability, human rights, and proportionality to Caribbean regional integration.Less

Free Movement and Private Regulation

Mislav Mataija

in Private Regulation and the Internal Market: Sports, Legal Services, and Standard Setting in EU Economic Law

Chapter II looks at the application of EU free movement rules to private regulation by the CJEU. It critically assesses the prevailing debate on these issues which focuses on an ill-defined notion of ... More

Chapter II looks at the application of EU free movement rules to private regulation by the CJEU. It critically assesses the prevailing debate on these issues which focuses on an ill-defined notion of private autonomy in order to either completely oppose or fully support the application of the free movement rules. It argues that all four freedoms are now, in principle, applicable to private regulation, converging around a legal test based on foreseeable effects on market access, rather than on formal criteria such as links to the State. As a corollary, the interpretation of the rules can adapt, and has in practice adapted to private actors through a more flexible justification analysis. This is described as a shift from ‘private autonomy’ arguments that seek to achieve exemptions from EU law to ‘regulatory autonomy’ arguments that engage with substantive policy choices while broadly recognizing the legitimacy of private regulators.Less

Associative Effects: Competition, Social Interactions, Group and Kin Selection

Bruce Walsh and Michael Lynch

in Evolution and Selection of Quantitative Traits

The phenotypes of those individuals with which an focal individual interacts often influences the trait value in the focal individual. Maternal effects is a classic example of this phenomena, as is ... More

The phenotypes of those individuals with which an focal individual interacts often influences the trait value in the focal individual. Maternal effects is a classic example of this phenomena, as is fitness. If these traits are heritable, then the selection response depends on both the change in the direct effects influencing a target trait and the associative effects contributed by interacting individuals. In such a setting, the breeder's equation no longer holds, as the problem is now a multiple trait one. This chapter examines the theory of response under models with both direct and associative effects, which can lead to a reversed response (a trait selected to increase instead decreases). The evolution of behavioral traits, including the evolution of altruism, is best handled using this approach. Further, kin and group selection follow as special cases of the gerenal model under multilevel selection. This chapter also examines how mixed models can be used estimate model parameters.Less