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Introduction: Icons, Idols, and Revolution

John E. Cort

in Framing the Jina: Narratives of Icons and Idols in Jain History

The book is introduced by two exemplary narratives of Jains who were “converted” from, and to, an acceptance of the role of religious icons of Jinas. Lonka Shah was a fifteenth‐century Shvetambara ... More

The book is introduced by two exemplary narratives of Jains who were “converted” from, and to, an acceptance of the role of religious icons of Jinas. Lonka Shah was a fifteenth‐century Shvetambara Jain layman who became convinced that icons were in fact idols, while Atmaramji (Vijay Anandsuri) was a nineteenth‐century monk who left his aniconic Shvetambara Sthanakavasi Jain tradition to join the Shvetambara Murtipujaka Jain tradition and become a staunch advocate of icons. These narratives introduce a number of terms that are central to the book: icon, image and idol; iconophile and iconoclast; and Sthanakavasi and Murtipujaka. The introduction also discusses the book's use of history and narrative as discursive categories for understanding the past as relevant to the present. It discusses the use of the concept of “frame” as an alternative to context, as it recognizes the role of the interpreter in deciding which “contexts” to use in the interpretive process.Less

The Iconoclast Controversy 726–843

J. M. Hussey

in The Orthodox Church in the Byzantine Empire

The introductory part discusses the growing cult of the icon in the Orthodox Church and the controversies that this gave rise to in the period 728–843; the cult started in the late sixth and seventh ... More

The introductory part discusses the growing cult of the icon in the Orthodox Church and the controversies that this gave rise to in the period 728–843; the cult started in the late sixth and seventh centuries, and is attributed to a need for additional security. The first section discusses the North Syrian rulers and the initial phase of the controversy from 726 to 787: the background to the crisis, the opening actions against icons (iconoclasm) under Leo III, and the further measures taken by Constantine V and the council of 754. The second section discusses the first restoration of the icons, and covers the Empress Irene and the council of Nicaea (787), conflicting currents in 787–843, and Irene and Constantine VI. The third section discusses the second phase of iconoclasm, and the fourth the restoration of orthodoxy (of icon veneration) in 843 under Patriarch Methodius. The last section discusses the significance of the controversy over icons.Less

The Historical Context of Iconoclast Reform

Judith Herrin

in Margins and Metropolis: Authority across the Byzantine Empire

This chapter examines the historical context of iconoclast reform under the Byzantine Empire. In the early eighth century, the Byzantine Empire teetered on the edge of total collapse. From 695 to 717 ... More

This chapter examines the historical context of iconoclast reform under the Byzantine Empire. In the early eighth century, the Byzantine Empire teetered on the edge of total collapse. From 695 to 717 internal conflicts threatened to divide the empire, while Muslim forces seemed poised ready to capture Constantinople itself. This troubled period is therefore crucial to an analysis of Byzantium during the first outbreak of iconoclasm. The first reign of Justinian II, the last ruling member of the Heraclian dynasty, ended in a palace coup of 695, which established a usurper, Leontios, as emperor. This event was the first of many similar upheavals that followed with all too regular repetition, making nonsense of the tradition of a Byzantine imperial family. The chapter discusses the efforts of Leo III and his son Constantine to end a political crisis that nearly brought down the Byzantine Empire.Less

Baptism, Eucharist, and Heresy

Roman Cholij

in Theodore the Stoudite: The Ordering of Holiness

In this chapter, the discussion focuses on the sanctifying rites of baptism and the eucharist and how Theodore viewed them. Based on Euchologion texts, the term ‘illumination’ is often used to refer ... More

In this chapter, the discussion focuses on the sanctifying rites of baptism and the eucharist and how Theodore viewed them. Based on Euchologion texts, the term ‘illumination’ is often used to refer to the full reality and rites of baptism, which includes more than the concrete actions of washing or immersion. The essence of the rite of baptism was the triple immersion in water with the triple invocation of the Trinity. According to the canons, the administration of baptism is restricted to a bishop or presbyter. Theodore, however, believed that an ordained monk or even a layman could baptize if necessary in the absence of an Orthodox priest or bishop. He regarded the baptisms administered by adherents of the moechian heresy as irregular but took a much more hard line position with iconoclast baptisms, calling them invalid and ‘demonical.’ Because it gave him great consolation, Theodore tried to receive eucharist every day and encouraged his monks to do the same. He established that there could be no communion with heretics because to be in communion with heresy was to be alienated from God, from Christ, and from the body of Christ. Heretics, and most especially iconoclasts, were cut off from Christ's body by reason of their heterodoxy, and their own liturgical celebrations do not provide any benefit but merely increase their separation from Christ.Less

General Conclusions

Roman Cholij

in Theodore the Stoudite: The Ordering of Holiness

Despite being bound by his profession as a monk to abstain from involvement in the affairs of the world, Theodore the Stoudite's personality and convictions compelled him to push for monastic reforms ... More

Despite being bound by his profession as a monk to abstain from involvement in the affairs of the world, Theodore the Stoudite's personality and convictions compelled him to push for monastic reforms and oppose moechian heresy and the revival of iconoclasm during his lifetime. While he believed in maintaining a harmonious relationship between the emperor and the church, he also believed in the principles of order and authority that are grounded on the commandments of God, monastic rulings, and church ordinances. Hence, when the emperor manifestly abused his position and promoted what was contrary to good faith and morals, Theodore felt he had to act. In discussing the principle of holiness, the writings of Dionysios and Theodore on what they believed were the sacraments of the church help provide the context in which the rites of sanctification should be understood. According to Theodore, the sacraments of baptism, eucharist, and orders administered by heretics, especially iconoclasts, were considered null and non-existent. He also believed that by receiving the sacrament of baptism, both the lay person and the monk can achieve holiness, although monks had to live in virginity. Perhaps Theodore's biggest contribution to subsequent generations was the Hypotyposis, which became the model for many other monasteries. The activities of the Stoudios monastery itself contributed much to Byzantine society. Its scriptorium was a contributing factor in the revival of culture and humanism in the ninth century. Theodore contributed to the life of the church not primarily as an intellectual but as an organizer and leader. Theodore unquestionably fulfilled his ecclesial mission of strengthening and defending the monastic institution with extraordinary zeal and dedication.Less

Too Hot — China Fights for Its Life

Paul French

in Through the Looking Glass: China's Foreign Journalists from Opium Wars to Mao

The number of foreign journalists who happened to be in the vicinity of central Shanghai when the bombs fell on Black Saturday, 14 August 1937, was incredible. After Black Saturday, things went from ... More

The number of foreign journalists who happened to be in the vicinity of central Shanghai when the bombs fell on Black Saturday, 14 August 1937, was incredible. After Black Saturday, things went from bad to worse. In addition, the situation was immediately bad for the foreign press corps: even getting to China could be problematic. As if the fighting to date had not been terrible enough with the slaughter in Shanghai, worse was to come as the Japanese army swarmed into Nanjing and, after defeating the Chinese army, went on an horrific and genocidal rampage through the city for six weeks in what swiftly became known as the “Rape of Nanking”. The Last Ditchers and Iconoclasts are outlined. Christopher Isherwood and Wystan Hugh Auden arrived in China as “amateur war correspondents”. It was not necessarily clear that they would sympathise with China's plight any more than some other foreign leftists had. Gung Ho Kids were the group gathered outside Shanghai in 1940 to avoid internment. By the end of 1941, most of the press corps had been forced to leave China, and others had been interned, tortured, or killed.Less

Introduction: A Modern Sensation

in The World in Play: Portraits of a Victorian Concept

This introductory chapter starts by briefly considering how modernity felt to Victorians and how they described the sensation of modern life. It then sets out the purpose of this book, which is to ... More

This introductory chapter starts by briefly considering how modernity felt to Victorians and how they described the sensation of modern life. It then sets out the purpose of this book, which is to provide a compelling account of how various Victorian misfits, underdogs, and iconoclasts—antiestablishment literary figures with a penchant for questioning the middle-class worldview—grappled with, transformed, or in some cases made reluctant peace with the world in play. An overview of the subsequent chapters is also presented.Less

The Axial Age in World History

Shmuel N. Eisenstadt

in The Cultural Values of Europe

This chapter analyses the characteristics of the ‘axial civilizations’ or those civilizations that crystallized during the time from 500 bc to the advent of Islam in the seventh century ad. It then ... More

This chapter analyses the characteristics of the ‘axial civilizations’ or those civilizations that crystallized during the time from 500 bc to the advent of Islam in the seventh century ad. It then outlines some of the major similarities and differences between them and how they influenced or shaped the common characteristics of modernity. The chapter also discusses the constitution of collective identities and constellations of power in axial-age civilizations. Examples are the crystallization of Jewish identity in the Second Temple and in exilic times, the Iconoclasts in the Byzantine Empire, the great divide between Sunni and Shiite Islam, and Protestantism in Europe.Less

Ribu and Tanaka Mitsu: The Icon, the Center, and Its Contradictions

Setsu Shigematsu

in Scream from the Shadows: The Women's Liberation Movement in Japan

This chapter talks about one of Ūman ribu’s key activists, Tanaka Mitsu. During the 1970s, Tanaka appeared at leftist political gatherings and distributed handwritten manifestos that called for the ... More

This chapter talks about one of Ūman ribu’s key activists, Tanaka Mitsu. During the 1970s, Tanaka appeared at leftist political gatherings and distributed handwritten manifestos that called for the “liberation of eros” and the “liberation of sex”. The six-page pamphlet, entitled Liberation from the Toilet, became the most well-known manifesto of the ribu movement. From 1970 to 1975, Tanaka was involved in organizing most of ribu’s major activities and became the most visible iconoclast, playing pivotal roles in the movement such as spokeswoman, philosopher, writer, and leader. At the beginning of the ribu, Tanaka forwarded a comprehensive and cogent argument of why women’s liberation had to be the liberation of sex, making her a forerunner theorist of the movement.Less

Introduction

Torstein Theodor Tollefsen

in St Theodore the Studite's Defence of the Icons: Theology and Philosophy in Ninth-Century Byzantium

This chapter outlines the topic of the book, an investigation of St Theodore the Studite’s doctrine of images. It describes the content of the individual chapters, and explains the rationale behind ... More

This chapter outlines the topic of the book, an investigation of St Theodore the Studite’s doctrine of images. It describes the content of the individual chapters, and explains the rationale behind the appendix. It has some remarks on earlier literature that are relevant for this topic, and sketches the conciliar background for the iconoclast challenge that Theodore addresses. The iconoclast challenge is whether it is possible to make a true image of the incarnate God. ‘True image’ is therefore a central topic of Theodore’s defence and his working out of a doctrine of icons. This is the challenge he is engaged to address.Less

Circumscription

Torstein Theodor Tollefsen

in St Theodore the Studite's Defence of the Icons: Theology and Philosophy in Ninth-Century Byzantium

The concept of circumscription is central to the iconoclast argument against the icons: if the icon is a true image of Christ, it must represent his divine as well as his human nature. If it cannot ... More

The concept of circumscription is central to the iconoclast argument against the icons: if the icon is a true image of Christ, it must represent his divine as well as his human nature. If it cannot do that, the image is an idol. The divine nature is uncircumscribed, therefore an image cannot be made of it. This is the challenge Theodore tries to counter. He develops a detailed Christological position in order to show that Christ somehow must appear in this world in a concrete (circumscribed) and visible form. The chapter presents an interpretation of both iconoclast Christology and Theodore’s Christology. Theodore manages to define his Christological position in such a way that he can show how Christ may be a subject of painting. The concepts of the eidos (appearance) and likeness allow Theodore to work out a doctrine of painting that is almost phenomenological, to use a modern term.Less

The Social Practices of Art for Veneration

Nicholas Wolterstorff

in Art Rethought: The Social Practices of Art

This chapter analyses the social practices of art for veneration—that is, art that is engaged by the public in such a way as to honor or venerate the person or event depicted. This way of engaging ... More

This chapter analyses the social practices of art for veneration—that is, art that is engaged by the public in such a way as to honor or venerate the person or event depicted. This way of engaging works of the arts has never been so thoroughly analyzed and discussed as it was in the iconoclast controversy that wracked the Byzantines from around 725 until around 850 CE. This chapter analyzes the Byzantine controversy for the light it can shed on art for veneration in general. Special attention is paid to the arguments of those who were opposed to veneration of icons.Less

Hagiographic Representations of Patriarch Ma

Mario Poceski

in The Records of Mazu and the Making of Classical Chan Literature

The chapter explores the larger issues of historical remembrance and religious (re)imagination within the Chan tradition, primarily by looking at key hagiographic portrayals and transformations of ... More

The chapter explores the larger issues of historical remembrance and religious (re)imagination within the Chan tradition, primarily by looking at key hagiographic portrayals and transformations of Mazu, as they are preserved in a variety of Chan texts. Mazu’s well-known depiction as a prototypical Chan iconoclast—which first emerged during the tenth century and has tended to dominate both traditional and modern accounts of his life and teachings—is examined in greater detail.Less

Why the Revolution?

Nicholas Wolterstorff

in Art Rethought: The Social Practices of Art

This chapter presents the thesis of James Simpson that part of what contributed to the emergence of our modern art world was that it was a way of defusing the iconoclast controversies then racking ... More

This chapter presents the thesis of James Simpson that part of what contributed to the emergence of our modern art world was that it was a way of defusing the iconoclast controversies then racking Western Europe. When paintings and sculptures with religious subject matter are removed from churches and other religious institutions and placed in museums, they are no longer “images” about which there is dispute as to whether or not they are idols; they have become “art.” In the museum, religious images join “secular” images as objects of aesthetic attention rather than religious veneration.Less