Katja Maria Vogt
- Published in print:
- 2008
- Published Online:
- January 2008
- ISBN:
- 9780195320091
- eISBN:
- 9780199869657
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195320091.003.0003
- Subject:
- Philosophy, Ancient Philosophy
The Stoics propose a cosmopolitan theory, but not in a modern sense of the term: their cosmic city is the cosmos. The Stoic theory is also not well described as impartialist or universalist; it calls ...
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The Stoics propose a cosmopolitan theory, but not in a modern sense of the term: their cosmic city is the cosmos. The Stoic theory is also not well described as impartialist or universalist; it calls for a certain kind of affiliation with all human beings. It is argued that the evidence does not speak in favor of seeing a marked development within early Stoicism: it does not seem that, while Zeno conceives of a city of sages, Chrysippus comes to compare the cosmos with a city, thus creating the notion of a cosmic city. Rather, it seems that early Stoic political philosophy is, throughout, concerned with a complex mix of two ideas—that the cosmos is the common home of all human beings, and thus like a city, and that, in order to truly live by the law of this cosmic city and thus be its citizen, one must be wise. These ideas are deeply connected with Stoic thought about affiliation (oikeiôsis): we should view everyone as belonging to us, thus understanding something which is the case (all human beings do belong to us as fellow‐inhabitants of the world); but only through gaining a full understanding of what this means (i.e., by becoming wise) can we achieve a full integration into the cosmos.Less
The Stoics propose a cosmopolitan theory, but not in a modern sense of the term: their cosmic city is the cosmos. The Stoic theory is also not well described as impartialist or universalist; it calls for a certain kind of affiliation with all human beings. It is argued that the evidence does not speak in favor of seeing a marked development within early Stoicism: it does not seem that, while Zeno conceives of a city of sages, Chrysippus comes to compare the cosmos with a city, thus creating the notion of a cosmic city. Rather, it seems that early Stoic political philosophy is, throughout, concerned with a complex mix of two ideas—that the cosmos is the common home of all human beings, and thus like a city, and that, in order to truly live by the law of this cosmic city and thus be its citizen, one must be wise. These ideas are deeply connected with Stoic thought about affiliation (oikeiôsis): we should view everyone as belonging to us, thus understanding something which is the case (all human beings do belong to us as fellow‐inhabitants of the world); but only through gaining a full understanding of what this means (i.e., by becoming wise) can we achieve a full integration into the cosmos.
Pavel Gregoric
- Published in print:
- 2007
- Published Online:
- September 2007
- ISBN:
- 9780199277377
- eISBN:
- 9780191707537
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199277377.003.0008
- Subject:
- Philosophy, Ancient Philosophy
In PA IV.10 Aristotle explains the upright posture of human beings with reference to physiological factors that determine the abilities to think and behave intelligently. A detailed interpretation ...
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In PA IV.10 Aristotle explains the upright posture of human beings with reference to physiological factors that determine the abilities to think and behave intelligently. A detailed interpretation of Aristotle's explanation is supplied by drawing on his physiological theory and contrasting it with Plato‗s explanation of human posture in the Timaeus. In the crucial passage Aristotle seems to couple ‘thinking’ with the rational capacity of the soul and ‘intelligence’ with the common sense. It is argued that the phrase ‘common sense’ is best taken with reference to the sensory capacity of the soul, that is the capacity of the soul which comprises perception and imagination. This capacity exhausts the cognitive repertoire of non-rational animals, and it accounts for their intelligent behaviour. In the next two chapters it will be argued that Aristotle uses the phrase koine aisthesis two more times in the same way, as a proper name for the sensory capacity of the soul, both times in the context of complex non-rational cognitive activities.Less
In PA IV.10 Aristotle explains the upright posture of human beings with reference to physiological factors that determine the abilities to think and behave intelligently. A detailed interpretation of Aristotle's explanation is supplied by drawing on his physiological theory and contrasting it with Plato‗s explanation of human posture in the Timaeus. In the crucial passage Aristotle seems to couple ‘thinking’ with the rational capacity of the soul and ‘intelligence’ with the common sense. It is argued that the phrase ‘common sense’ is best taken with reference to the sensory capacity of the soul, that is the capacity of the soul which comprises perception and imagination. This capacity exhausts the cognitive repertoire of non-rational animals, and it accounts for their intelligent behaviour. In the next two chapters it will be argued that Aristotle uses the phrase koine aisthesis two more times in the same way, as a proper name for the sensory capacity of the soul, both times in the context of complex non-rational cognitive activities.
Frederick Neuhouser
- Published in print:
- 2008
- Published Online:
- January 2009
- ISBN:
- 9780199542673
- eISBN:
- 9780191715402
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199542673.003.0008
- Subject:
- Philosophy, Political Philosophy
The preceding chapter distinguished three features of the frame of mind individuals must acquire in order to assume the standpoint of reason. This chapter determines what role amour-propre might play ...
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The preceding chapter distinguished three features of the frame of mind individuals must acquire in order to assume the standpoint of reason. This chapter determines what role amour-propre might play in making it possible for human beings to adopt such a standpoint. It shows that amour-propre plays a crucial role in bringing about each of these features of rational agency. More precisely: amour-propre is a necessary, though not sufficient, condition of the formation of human beings into rational subjects.Less
The preceding chapter distinguished three features of the frame of mind individuals must acquire in order to assume the standpoint of reason. This chapter determines what role amour-propre might play in making it possible for human beings to adopt such a standpoint. It shows that amour-propre plays a crucial role in bringing about each of these features of rational agency. More precisely: amour-propre is a necessary, though not sufficient, condition of the formation of human beings into rational subjects.
Christian Smith
- Published in print:
- 2003
- Published Online:
- October 2011
- ISBN:
- 9780195162028
- eISBN:
- 9780199849673
- Item type:
- book
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195162028.001.0001
- Subject:
- Religion, Philosophy of Religion
What kind of animals are human beings? And how do our visions of the human shape our theories of social action and institutions? This book offers answers to these and other fundamental questions in ...
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What kind of animals are human beings? And how do our visions of the human shape our theories of social action and institutions? This book offers answers to these and other fundamental questions in sociological, cultural, and religious theories. The research for this book is based on the assumption (unfashionable in certain circles) that human beings have an identifiable and peculiar set of capacities and proclivities that distinguishes them significantly from other animals on this planet. It argues that all people are at bottom believers, whose lives, actions, and institutions are constituted, motivated, and governed by narrative traditions and moral orders on which they inescapably depend. Despite the vast differences in humanity between cultures and across history, no matter how differently people narrate their lives and histories, there remains an underlying structure of human personhood that helps to order human culture, history, and narration. Drawing on recent insights in moral philosophy, epistemology, and narrative studies, the book argues that humans are animals who have an inescapable moral and spiritual dimension. They cannot avoid a fundamental moral orientation in life and this, the book says, has profound consequences for how sociology must study human beings.Less
What kind of animals are human beings? And how do our visions of the human shape our theories of social action and institutions? This book offers answers to these and other fundamental questions in sociological, cultural, and religious theories. The research for this book is based on the assumption (unfashionable in certain circles) that human beings have an identifiable and peculiar set of capacities and proclivities that distinguishes them significantly from other animals on this planet. It argues that all people are at bottom believers, whose lives, actions, and institutions are constituted, motivated, and governed by narrative traditions and moral orders on which they inescapably depend. Despite the vast differences in humanity between cultures and across history, no matter how differently people narrate their lives and histories, there remains an underlying structure of human personhood that helps to order human culture, history, and narration. Drawing on recent insights in moral philosophy, epistemology, and narrative studies, the book argues that humans are animals who have an inescapable moral and spiritual dimension. They cannot avoid a fundamental moral orientation in life and this, the book says, has profound consequences for how sociology must study human beings.
Christian Smith
- Published in print:
- 2003
- Published Online:
- October 2011
- ISBN:
- 9780195162028
- eISBN:
- 9780199849673
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195162028.003.0001
- Subject:
- Religion, Philosophy of Religion
This book offers answers to some of the fundamental questions regarding how our visions of humans shape our theories of social action and institutions. It ultimately presumes that the animals called ...
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This book offers answers to some of the fundamental questions regarding how our visions of humans shape our theories of social action and institutions. It ultimately presumes that the animals called human beings share an identifiable and peculiar set of capacities and proclivities that distinguishes them significantly from other animals on this planet. Despite the vast differences in humanity between cultures and across history, no matter how differently people narrate their lives and histories, there remains an underlying structure of human personhood that helps to order human culture, history, and narration. A second theme that emerges is that too much recent theorizing about culture and action in sociology has been very unhelpfully beset by overreactions against real but correctable flaws and over simplifications in previous theories.Less
This book offers answers to some of the fundamental questions regarding how our visions of humans shape our theories of social action and institutions. It ultimately presumes that the animals called human beings share an identifiable and peculiar set of capacities and proclivities that distinguishes them significantly from other animals on this planet. Despite the vast differences in humanity between cultures and across history, no matter how differently people narrate their lives and histories, there remains an underlying structure of human personhood that helps to order human culture, history, and narration. A second theme that emerges is that too much recent theorizing about culture and action in sociology has been very unhelpfully beset by overreactions against real but correctable flaws and over simplifications in previous theories.
Annabel S. Brett
- Published in print:
- 2011
- Published Online:
- October 2017
- ISBN:
- 9780691141930
- eISBN:
- 9781400838622
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Princeton University Press
- DOI:
- 10.23943/princeton/9780691141930.003.0003
- Subject:
- History, American History: early to 18th Century
This chapter argues that human agency is free agency. It is freedom, or dominium over one's own actions, which makes a human being different from all other animals; and it is the foundation of the ...
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This chapter argues that human agency is free agency. It is freedom, or dominium over one's own actions, which makes a human being different from all other animals; and it is the foundation of the world of the moral, the juridical, and the political, which are all continuous with one another and from which animals—and a fortiori all other natural agents—are excluded. However, during the sixteenth century, the idea that human beings are essentially and ineradicably free to control their own actions came under severe pressure from new and irreconcilable theological differences over the freedom of the human will—differences that therefore implicitly pressured the primary threshold of political space.Less
This chapter argues that human agency is free agency. It is freedom, or dominium over one's own actions, which makes a human being different from all other animals; and it is the foundation of the world of the moral, the juridical, and the political, which are all continuous with one another and from which animals—and a fortiori all other natural agents—are excluded. However, during the sixteenth century, the idea that human beings are essentially and ineradicably free to control their own actions came under severe pressure from new and irreconcilable theological differences over the freedom of the human will—differences that therefore implicitly pressured the primary threshold of political space.
Silvia Scarpa
- Published in print:
- 2008
- Published Online:
- January 2009
- ISBN:
- 9780199541904
- eISBN:
- 9780191715464
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199541904.003.0006
- Subject:
- Law, Human Rights and Immigration
This chapter discusses the role played by the European Union in the fight against trafficking in persons; the two legislative acts specifically dealing with this phenomenon — the Council Framework ...
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This chapter discusses the role played by the European Union in the fight against trafficking in persons; the two legislative acts specifically dealing with this phenomenon — the Council Framework Decision 2002/629/JHA and the Council Directive 2004/81/EC — are analysed to point out that they did not have victims' human rights as their ultimate goal. In spite of that, the European Conference on Preventing and Combating Trafficking in Human Beings held in 2002 paved the way for a radical change of the EU policy in the field of trafficking in persons. The chapter continues by looking at both the recent European Commission Communication and the Council Action Plan on trafficking in persons which adopted a human rights centred approach. However, this new EU trend has yet to be confirmed by the adoption of legislation on victims' protection. It argues that action in the field of trafficking in human organs and tissues is urgently needed.Less
This chapter discusses the role played by the European Union in the fight against trafficking in persons; the two legislative acts specifically dealing with this phenomenon — the Council Framework Decision 2002/629/JHA and the Council Directive 2004/81/EC — are analysed to point out that they did not have victims' human rights as their ultimate goal. In spite of that, the European Conference on Preventing and Combating Trafficking in Human Beings held in 2002 paved the way for a radical change of the EU policy in the field of trafficking in persons. The chapter continues by looking at both the recent European Commission Communication and the Council Action Plan on trafficking in persons which adopted a human rights centred approach. However, this new EU trend has yet to be confirmed by the adoption of legislation on victims' protection. It argues that action in the field of trafficking in human organs and tissues is urgently needed.
Lisa Kemmerer
- Published in print:
- 2011
- Published Online:
- January 2012
- ISBN:
- 9780199790678
- eISBN:
- 9780199919178
- Item type:
- book
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199790678.001.0001
- Subject:
- Religion, Religion and Society
This book focuses on core religious teachings that explain how human beings ought to behave in relation to other animals, with the intent that this information be considered in light of contemporary ...
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This book focuses on core religious teachings that explain how human beings ought to behave in relation to other animals, with the intent that this information be considered in light of contemporary practices and consumer choices. The book explores sacred literature, the lives of religious exemplars, and core ethics to expose animal-friendly teachings in indigenous, Vedic, Hindu, Jain, Buddhist, Daoist, Confucian, Jewish, Christian, and Islamic religious traditions. Each chapter explores specific topics, such as sacred nature, key philosophical concepts (such as oneness of being, universal peace, and the afterlife), core ethics (on subjects such as compassion, humility, and diet), rightful relations between human beings and animals (kinship), and the activist nature of religious commitment, introducing famous figures such as Gandhi, Thich Nhat Hanh, and Tolstoy, as well as contemporary animal advocates from within each religious tradition. A thoughtful introduction and conclusion outline the parameters of the book, as well as the intent of the author, and provide focus for this landmark publication. Finally, the appendix explains industrial farming and fishing—including the environmental degradation associated with both—and explores terms such as ”free-range,” ”cruelty-free,” and ”organic.”Less
This book focuses on core religious teachings that explain how human beings ought to behave in relation to other animals, with the intent that this information be considered in light of contemporary practices and consumer choices. The book explores sacred literature, the lives of religious exemplars, and core ethics to expose animal-friendly teachings in indigenous, Vedic, Hindu, Jain, Buddhist, Daoist, Confucian, Jewish, Christian, and Islamic religious traditions. Each chapter explores specific topics, such as sacred nature, key philosophical concepts (such as oneness of being, universal peace, and the afterlife), core ethics (on subjects such as compassion, humility, and diet), rightful relations between human beings and animals (kinship), and the activist nature of religious commitment, introducing famous figures such as Gandhi, Thich Nhat Hanh, and Tolstoy, as well as contemporary animal advocates from within each religious tradition. A thoughtful introduction and conclusion outline the parameters of the book, as well as the intent of the author, and provide focus for this landmark publication. Finally, the appendix explains industrial farming and fishing—including the environmental degradation associated with both—and explores terms such as ”free-range,” ”cruelty-free,” and ”organic.”
Lloyd P. Gerson
- Published in print:
- 2006
- Published Online:
- May 2007
- ISBN:
- 9780199288670
- eISBN:
- 9780191717789
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199288670.003.0001
- Subject:
- Philosophy, Ancient Philosophy
This introductory chapter discusses the main argument of the book, namely that Plato does indeed wish to distinguish between human beings and persons. However, Plato's account of persons is not ...
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This introductory chapter discusses the main argument of the book, namely that Plato does indeed wish to distinguish between human beings and persons. However, Plato's account of persons is not usefully detachable from his metaphysics and from his epistemology. Human beings or embodied persons are situated within a hierarchical metaphysics by Plato. For Plato, embodied persons are the only sorts of images that can reflexively recognize their own relatively inferior states as images and strive to transform themselves into their own ideal. An overview of the chapters included in this volume is presented.Less
This introductory chapter discusses the main argument of the book, namely that Plato does indeed wish to distinguish between human beings and persons. However, Plato's account of persons is not usefully detachable from his metaphysics and from his epistemology. Human beings or embodied persons are situated within a hierarchical metaphysics by Plato. For Plato, embodied persons are the only sorts of images that can reflexively recognize their own relatively inferior states as images and strive to transform themselves into their own ideal. An overview of the chapters included in this volume is presented.
Silvia Scarpa
- Published in print:
- 2008
- Published Online:
- January 2009
- ISBN:
- 9780199541904
- eISBN:
- 9780191715464
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199541904.003.0005
- Subject:
- Law, Human Rights and Immigration
This chapter reviews the action of the Council of Europe in the field of trafficking in persons. The European Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms (ECHR) adopted by ...
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This chapter reviews the action of the Council of Europe in the field of trafficking in persons. The European Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms (ECHR) adopted by the Council of Europe in 1950 does not explicitly mention trafficking in persons, although its Article 4 does deal with slavery, servitude, and forced labour. Therefore, as recently demonstrated in Siliadin v France, the protection of trafficking victims can be achieved through the implementation of this ECHR provision. Furthermore, the recent adoption of the European Convention on Action against Trafficking in Human Beings can be considered as a major step in the fight against the phenomenon, and there is no doubt that this instrument is the most advanced international convention dealing with this phenomenon. The chapter concludes by analysing the activities of the Council of Europe in the field of trafficking in human organs and tissues.Less
This chapter reviews the action of the Council of Europe in the field of trafficking in persons. The European Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms (ECHR) adopted by the Council of Europe in 1950 does not explicitly mention trafficking in persons, although its Article 4 does deal with slavery, servitude, and forced labour. Therefore, as recently demonstrated in Siliadin v France, the protection of trafficking victims can be achieved through the implementation of this ECHR provision. Furthermore, the recent adoption of the European Convention on Action against Trafficking in Human Beings can be considered as a major step in the fight against the phenomenon, and there is no doubt that this instrument is the most advanced international convention dealing with this phenomenon. The chapter concludes by analysing the activities of the Council of Europe in the field of trafficking in human organs and tissues.
BHIKHU PAREKH
- Published in print:
- 2009
- Published Online:
- January 2012
- ISBN:
- 9780197264584
- eISBN:
- 9780191734069
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- British Academy
- DOI:
- 10.5871/bacad/9780197264584.003.0010
- Subject:
- History, Cultural History
This lecture presents the text of the speech about reason and identity delivered by the author at the 2008 Isaiah Berlin Lecture held at the British Academy. It discusses the style and content of Sir ...
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This lecture presents the text of the speech about reason and identity delivered by the author at the 2008 Isaiah Berlin Lecture held at the British Academy. It discusses the style and content of Sir Isaiah Berlin's thought and explores the complex relation between the closely connected ideas of reason and identity. The lecture explains that reason and identity are both constitutive features of human life in the sense that human beings cannot be defined and understood without reference to either.Less
This lecture presents the text of the speech about reason and identity delivered by the author at the 2008 Isaiah Berlin Lecture held at the British Academy. It discusses the style and content of Sir Isaiah Berlin's thought and explores the complex relation between the closely connected ideas of reason and identity. The lecture explains that reason and identity are both constitutive features of human life in the sense that human beings cannot be defined and understood without reference to either.
Carl N. Degler
- Published in print:
- 1993
- Published Online:
- October 2011
- ISBN:
- 9780195077070
- eISBN:
- 9780199853991
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195077070.003.0014
- Subject:
- History, History of Ideas
This chapter suggests that Charles Darwin's evolutionary theory will continue to dominate future studies of human behavior. Despite criticisms on the Darwinian Imperative and the problems in placing ...
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This chapter suggests that Charles Darwin's evolutionary theory will continue to dominate future studies of human behavior. Despite criticisms on the Darwinian Imperative and the problems in placing human beings within the evolutionary process, it is undeniable that biology plays a major role in understanding human nature. Biology can help clarify the continuity between human and animal experience and determine whether consciousness and awareness exist in animals.Less
This chapter suggests that Charles Darwin's evolutionary theory will continue to dominate future studies of human behavior. Despite criticisms on the Darwinian Imperative and the problems in placing human beings within the evolutionary process, it is undeniable that biology plays a major role in understanding human nature. Biology can help clarify the continuity between human and animal experience and determine whether consciousness and awareness exist in animals.
David DeGrazia
- Published in print:
- 2012
- Published Online:
- September 2012
- ISBN:
- 9780195389630
- eISBN:
- 9780199949731
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195389630.003.0001
- Subject:
- Philosophy, Moral Philosophy, Philosophy of Science
The chapter opens by introducing the concept of creation and explaining the various ways in which human beings create, or in the future will create, human beings and particular types of human beings: ...
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The chapter opens by introducing the concept of creation and explaining the various ways in which human beings create, or in the future will create, human beings and particular types of human beings: through ordinary reproduction, deliberate self-transformation (“self-creation”), selection of embryos, decisions to abort or continue a pregnancy, genetic therapy or enhancement, and the bringing about of future generations. It proceeds by noting how the book differs from existing literature on the topics addressed. Most of the chapter is devoted to an overview of the other chapters’ main arguments.Less
The chapter opens by introducing the concept of creation and explaining the various ways in which human beings create, or in the future will create, human beings and particular types of human beings: through ordinary reproduction, deliberate self-transformation (“self-creation”), selection of embryos, decisions to abort or continue a pregnancy, genetic therapy or enhancement, and the bringing about of future generations. It proceeds by noting how the book differs from existing literature on the topics addressed. Most of the chapter is devoted to an overview of the other chapters’ main arguments.
Katalin Farkas
- Published in print:
- 2008
- Published Online:
- January 2009
- ISBN:
- 9780199230327
- eISBN:
- 9780191710629
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199230327.003.0003
- Subject:
- Philosophy, Philosophy of Mind
Our list of mental features is the same as the Cartesian list, and rather different from, say, the Aristotelian list of psychological powers. The present proposal is not committed to dualism about ...
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Our list of mental features is the same as the Cartesian list, and rather different from, say, the Aristotelian list of psychological powers. The present proposal is not committed to dualism about mind and body, but it does imply a certain duality about our nature: there is something in our nature that we share with the rest of the created world, and there is something that is distinctively human. The latter aspect is described here by saying that we are persons. The suggestion is that a person is a creature who has the kind of mind we have. Here lies the significance of the Cartesian conception of the mind: it offers us a list of mental phenomena which is put together on a principled basis; and it is the possession of these attributes that provides the criteria for personhood.Less
Our list of mental features is the same as the Cartesian list, and rather different from, say, the Aristotelian list of psychological powers. The present proposal is not committed to dualism about mind and body, but it does imply a certain duality about our nature: there is something in our nature that we share with the rest of the created world, and there is something that is distinctively human. The latter aspect is described here by saying that we are persons. The suggestion is that a person is a creature who has the kind of mind we have. Here lies the significance of the Cartesian conception of the mind: it offers us a list of mental phenomena which is put together on a principled basis; and it is the possession of these attributes that provides the criteria for personhood.
Mary Anne Warren
- Published in print:
- 2000
- Published Online:
- October 2011
- ISBN:
- 9780198250401
- eISBN:
- 9780191681295
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780198250401.003.0011
- Subject:
- Philosophy, Moral Philosophy
This chapter presents a few concluding remarks about the goal of achieving a greater consensus in our judgements of moral status. It argues that adopting a multi-criterial theory of moral status does ...
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This chapter presents a few concluding remarks about the goal of achieving a greater consensus in our judgements of moral status. It argues that adopting a multi-criterial theory of moral status does not make it easy to solve all of the moral problems arising from uncertainties about what we owe to other entities. However, it gives us a more adequate set of tools than any of the uni-criterial theories. On the multi-criterial account there are many types of moral status, and many of these come in varying degrees of strength. Moral agents, sentient human beings who are not moral agents, sentient nonhuman animals, non-sentient living things, and such other elements of the natural world as species and ecosystems — all have legitimate claims to moral consideration. Of all the entities with which we interact, only moral agents have full moral status based solely upon their mental and behavioural capacities. The rest have moral status that is partially determined by their social and other relationships to moral agents, and — in the case of entities that are not sentient human beings — by their roles within terrestrial ecosystems.Less
This chapter presents a few concluding remarks about the goal of achieving a greater consensus in our judgements of moral status. It argues that adopting a multi-criterial theory of moral status does not make it easy to solve all of the moral problems arising from uncertainties about what we owe to other entities. However, it gives us a more adequate set of tools than any of the uni-criterial theories. On the multi-criterial account there are many types of moral status, and many of these come in varying degrees of strength. Moral agents, sentient human beings who are not moral agents, sentient nonhuman animals, non-sentient living things, and such other elements of the natural world as species and ecosystems — all have legitimate claims to moral consideration. Of all the entities with which we interact, only moral agents have full moral status based solely upon their mental and behavioural capacities. The rest have moral status that is partially determined by their social and other relationships to moral agents, and — in the case of entities that are not sentient human beings — by their roles within terrestrial ecosystems.
Robert Kolb
- Published in print:
- 2009
- Published Online:
- October 2011
- ISBN:
- 9780199208937
- eISBN:
- 9780191695742
- Item type:
- book
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199208937.001.0001
- Subject:
- Religion, Theology, History of Christianity
Martin Luther's thought continues to challenge people throughout the world in the twenty-first century. His paradigmatic shift in defining God and what it means to be human left behind a foundation ...
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Martin Luther's thought continues to challenge people throughout the world in the twenty-first century. His paradigmatic shift in defining God and what it means to be human left behind a foundation for viewing human creatures that was anchored in Aristotle's anthropology. Luther defined the Revealed God in terms of his mercy and love for human beings, based not on their merit and performance but rather on his unconditioned grace. He placed ‘fearing, loving, and trusting God above all else’ at the heart of his definition of being human. This volume places the development and exposition of these key presuppositions in Luther's thinking within the historical context of late medieval theology and piety as well as the unfolding dynamics of political and social change at the dawn of the modern era. Special attention is given the development of a ‘Wittenberg way’ of practicing theology under Luther's leadership, which left behind a dependence on allegorical methods of biblical interpretation for a ‘literal-prophetic’ approach to Scripture. More importantly, it placed the distinction between the ‘gospel’ as God's unmerited gift of identity as his children and the ‘law’ at the heart of all interpretation of the Bible.Less
Martin Luther's thought continues to challenge people throughout the world in the twenty-first century. His paradigmatic shift in defining God and what it means to be human left behind a foundation for viewing human creatures that was anchored in Aristotle's anthropology. Luther defined the Revealed God in terms of his mercy and love for human beings, based not on their merit and performance but rather on his unconditioned grace. He placed ‘fearing, loving, and trusting God above all else’ at the heart of his definition of being human. This volume places the development and exposition of these key presuppositions in Luther's thinking within the historical context of late medieval theology and piety as well as the unfolding dynamics of political and social change at the dawn of the modern era. Special attention is given the development of a ‘Wittenberg way’ of practicing theology under Luther's leadership, which left behind a dependence on allegorical methods of biblical interpretation for a ‘literal-prophetic’ approach to Scripture. More importantly, it placed the distinction between the ‘gospel’ as God's unmerited gift of identity as his children and the ‘law’ at the heart of all interpretation of the Bible.
Terence Irwin
- Published in print:
- 2007
- Published Online:
- October 2011
- ISBN:
- 9780198242673
- eISBN:
- 9780191680519
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780198242673.003.0007
- Subject:
- Philosophy, Moral Philosophy, History of Philosophy
This chapter looks more closely at Aristotle's position on function, essence, and nature. Here Aristotle explains what he means by attributing a function ...
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This chapter looks more closely at Aristotle's position on function, essence, and nature. Here Aristotle explains what he means by attributing a function to human beings, and on what grounds he attributes it to them. Aristotle's claims about function do not simply say that we have natural tendencies. He also attributes to human beings a nature that is not simply the sum of all natural tendencies. To speak of a thing's nature and of what is in accord with its nature is to select among the natural tendencies, since they may not all accord with the nature of the whole. Aristotle's conception of nature connects a thing's nature with its essence, and with the kind that it belongs to. This account of the Function Argument attributes a naturalist position to Aristotle. He argues for his account of the human good from premises about the nature of human beings as rational animals.Less
This chapter looks more closely at Aristotle's position on function, essence, and nature. Here Aristotle explains what he means by attributing a function to human beings, and on what grounds he attributes it to them. Aristotle's claims about function do not simply say that we have natural tendencies. He also attributes to human beings a nature that is not simply the sum of all natural tendencies. To speak of a thing's nature and of what is in accord with its nature is to select among the natural tendencies, since they may not all accord with the nature of the whole. Aristotle's conception of nature connects a thing's nature with its essence, and with the kind that it belongs to. This account of the Function Argument attributes a naturalist position to Aristotle. He argues for his account of the human good from premises about the nature of human beings as rational animals.
David Hodgson
- Published in print:
- 2012
- Published Online:
- May 2012
- ISBN:
- 9780199845309
- eISBN:
- 9780199932269
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199845309.003.0002
- Subject:
- Philosophy, Philosophy of Mind, General
Chapter 1 begins by considering what are my own most certain and most fundamental beliefs, and suggests that they are the most reasonable starting points for addressing questions concerning free ...
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Chapter 1 begins by considering what are my own most certain and most fundamental beliefs, and suggests that they are the most reasonable starting points for addressing questions concerning free will. Like Descartes, I ask what if anything I can be absolutely certain about; but unlike Descartes, I find that I cannot be certain about my own existence, but only that conscious experiences occur. As I explain, this is partly because of the need for a language with which to express and communicate beliefs of any complexity, and thus the dependence of complex beliefs on prior beliefs about language and language use; and this in turn requires prior beliefs about language-users and a world in which language is used.Less
Chapter 1 begins by considering what are my own most certain and most fundamental beliefs, and suggests that they are the most reasonable starting points for addressing questions concerning free will. Like Descartes, I ask what if anything I can be absolutely certain about; but unlike Descartes, I find that I cannot be certain about my own existence, but only that conscious experiences occur. As I explain, this is partly because of the need for a language with which to express and communicate beliefs of any complexity, and thus the dependence of complex beliefs on prior beliefs about language and language use; and this in turn requires prior beliefs about language-users and a world in which language is used.
Holger Zaborowski
- Published in print:
- 2010
- Published Online:
- May 2010
- ISBN:
- 9780199576777
- eISBN:
- 9780191722295
- Item type:
- book
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199576777.001.0001
- Subject:
- Religion, Theology, Philosophy of Religion
The German philosopher Robert Spaemann provides an important contribution to a number of contemporary debates in philosophy and theology, opening up possibilities for conversation between these ...
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The German philosopher Robert Spaemann provides an important contribution to a number of contemporary debates in philosophy and theology, opening up possibilities for conversation between these disciplines. He engages in a dialogue with classical and contemporary positions and often formulates important and original insights that lie beyond common alternatives. This study provides an analysis of the most important features of Spaemann's philosophy and shows the unity of his thought. The question ‘Who is a person?’ is of increasing significance: Are all human beings persons? Are there animals that can be considered persons? What does it mean to speak of personal identity and of the dignity of the person? Spaemann provides an answer to these questions: every human being, he argues, is a person and, therefore, ‘has’ his nature in freedom. In order to understand the person, Spaemann explains, we have to think about the relation between nature and freedom, and avoid the reductive accounts of this relation prevalent in important strands of modern thought. Spaemann develops a challenging critique of modernity, incorporating analysis of modern anti-modernisms and showing that these are also subject to a dialectical development, perpetuating the problematic shortcomings of many features of modern reasoning. If we do not want to abolish ourselves as persons, Spaemann reasons, we need to find a way of understanding ourselves that evades the dialectic of modernity. Thus, he reminds his readers of ‘self-evident’ knowledge: insights that we have once already known, but tend to forget.Less
The German philosopher Robert Spaemann provides an important contribution to a number of contemporary debates in philosophy and theology, opening up possibilities for conversation between these disciplines. He engages in a dialogue with classical and contemporary positions and often formulates important and original insights that lie beyond common alternatives. This study provides an analysis of the most important features of Spaemann's philosophy and shows the unity of his thought. The question ‘Who is a person?’ is of increasing significance: Are all human beings persons? Are there animals that can be considered persons? What does it mean to speak of personal identity and of the dignity of the person? Spaemann provides an answer to these questions: every human being, he argues, is a person and, therefore, ‘has’ his nature in freedom. In order to understand the person, Spaemann explains, we have to think about the relation between nature and freedom, and avoid the reductive accounts of this relation prevalent in important strands of modern thought. Spaemann develops a challenging critique of modernity, incorporating analysis of modern anti-modernisms and showing that these are also subject to a dialectical development, perpetuating the problematic shortcomings of many features of modern reasoning. If we do not want to abolish ourselves as persons, Spaemann reasons, we need to find a way of understanding ourselves that evades the dialectic of modernity. Thus, he reminds his readers of ‘self-evident’ knowledge: insights that we have once already known, but tend to forget.
Barry Stroud
- Published in print:
- 2011
- Published Online:
- September 2011
- ISBN:
- 9780199608591
- eISBN:
- 9780191729621
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199608591.003.0010
- Subject:
- Philosophy, History of Philosophy, Metaphysics/Epistemology
‘Naturalism’ can perhaps be understood as the project of explaining all aspects of human life, thought, and action on the basis of what can be found to be so in observable nature. There seems nothing ...
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‘Naturalism’ can perhaps be understood as the project of explaining all aspects of human life, thought, and action on the basis of what can be found to be so in observable nature. There seems nothing essentially problematic in such an enterprise. But in Hume's hands it reveals that human beings immediately perceive at best only something that falls far short of the world of enduring objects, causal connections, thinking and experiencing persons, and good and bad states of affairs that all human beings believe in. Given those ‘sceptical’ conclusions, explaining how human beings come to have any such beliefs seems to require explaining how what is so in the austere independent world combines with what is true of human beings to produce the richer conception of a world that they all accept. This chapter describes how acceptance of those ‘sceptical’ conclusions restricts what a Humean ‘naturalist’ can appeal to in explaining those ways of thinking in a way that leaves the would-be naturalism forever dissatisfying.Less
‘Naturalism’ can perhaps be understood as the project of explaining all aspects of human life, thought, and action on the basis of what can be found to be so in observable nature. There seems nothing essentially problematic in such an enterprise. But in Hume's hands it reveals that human beings immediately perceive at best only something that falls far short of the world of enduring objects, causal connections, thinking and experiencing persons, and good and bad states of affairs that all human beings believe in. Given those ‘sceptical’ conclusions, explaining how human beings come to have any such beliefs seems to require explaining how what is so in the austere independent world combines with what is true of human beings to produce the richer conception of a world that they all accept. This chapter describes how acceptance of those ‘sceptical’ conclusions restricts what a Humean ‘naturalist’ can appeal to in explaining those ways of thinking in a way that leaves the would-be naturalism forever dissatisfying.
