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This chapter addresses the development of the Norwegian Petroleum Innovation System. While the initial phase of the petroleum development of Norway in the 1960s was characterized by an absorptive capacity of receiving new technology, the building of Norwegian competence in the 1970s and 1980s was, in certain respects, directly shaped by public policy so that participatation could occur. With the Condeep design it became possible to speak of an independent Norwegian petroleum industry. In the R&D system of Norway, petroleum education and research were introduced at several levels. Due to new cost-efficient technologies introduced in the 1990s, we may say that the adjustment was concluded by the beginning of 21st century. The Norwegian oil and gas actors perceived themselves ready to participate fully in the international system of energy producers.

This book has been able to provide a thorough examination of certain aspects of nativism about the mind, such as its development throughout history and the modern advances in psychology and other fields that can be attributed to such. Part I was able to investigate historical debates regarding innateness, misconceptions and clarifications about this, and how we have been able to develop a novel explanation as to what nativism is. It explores the several nativist claims that involve psychological processes, as well as certain general views that some nativists may adopt. While Parts II and III accounted for innate ideas set in this context, and the author still asserts that we should still consider and examine empiricists' accounts of learning and not automatically embrace the promises attributed to nativism.

Reason identifies the central theme of world history, which gives it meaning: ‘the progress of the consciousness of freedom’; and it articulates this theme in a threefold structure (using a terminology not employed by Hegel himself): synchronic (pattern), diachronic (progress), and surchronic (see chapter 5). The first two of these structures are examined in chapters 2–4. From a synchronic perspective, freedom takes shape through the interweaving of the divine idea and human passions: history is a divine-human production. Viewed diachronically, freedom unfolds through stages of historical development: one is free (the Oriental world), some are free (the Greek and Roman worlds), and human beings as such are free (the Germanic/European world). History has a beginning, a progression, and an end.

This chapter considers the growing relevance of prosecution in international law and outlines this historical development. With the increased emphasis on criminal matters, a critical question of contemporary international law concerns to which extend criminal prosecution is a necessary element of human rights protection. This issue is of high practical relevance considering the proclamation of amnesties, large scale impunity, and frequent flaws in criminal proceedings worldwide. The chapter looks at these phenomena and specifies the relevant legal issues. It also describes the methodology and course of analysis of the book.

The study of history with the aim to understand the human past with some sense of detachment is a recent intellectual trend. In the past, a knowledge of history was aimed at ascertaining within history some hidden meaning: cosmic significance, general direction, or providential purpose. This chapter gives an overview of both the religious and secular philosophy of history including looking at Jewish, Christian, Hegelian, and Marxist ideas, and Idealism and Realism. The belief in historical development conceived as a philosophical history provides substantial material for conceptual elaboration and examination. The chapter evaluates the attitude of continental and analytical philosophical traditions toward the concept of grand historical narrative. The combination of the continental and analytical techniques for the purpose of philosophical history is still rare.

This chapter discusses the development of the notion of canonical equity as an illustration of the dialectical methodology of canon law. The discussion covers: the development of canonical equity by the medieval canonists; the notion of natural equity in the thought of Aquinas and Francisco Suárez; canonical equity in the twentieth-century codifications; and the historical consciousness and the objectivity of law. The purpose is to describe the way in which canonical methodology attempts to integrate the transcendent and universal with the historical and particular.

An insider perspective is presented on the historical development of EU (European Union) accounting regulation. The author explains why the EU moved away from the idea of European harmonization through the EU Accounting Directives to the adoption of International Accounting Standards (IAS) for all listed EU companies, and provides important insights into the dynamics of EU standard-setting processes. The chapter clearly demonstrates that the regulation of financial reporting is a complex issue and that there is no easy way to bring about accounting harmonization. The nine sections are: Introduction; The Accounting Directives; First attempts toward further harmonization; Development of a new accounting strategy; Proposed new accounting strategy; The proposed new accounting strategy in action; Toward a mandatory application of IAS; Regulation of the European Parliament and of the Council on the application of IAS; and Concluding observations.

This introductory chapter begins by recounting the historical developments of epidemiologic methods and obesity research. It then discusses epidemiologic models of obesity and domains of obesity epidemiology research.

Mark Wilson’s book Wandering Significance: An Essay on Conceptual Behavior is considered in this chapter. Wilson argues that common views on mathematical and scientific concepts distort our understanding of scientific knowledge and representation. Pincock substantially agrees with Wilson and describes how the positions from earlier chapters can be adapted to fit with Wilson’s worries. At the heart of Wilson’s worries is a view of representations as made up of a collection of locally effective patches. Pincock explains how mathematics generates these patches and helps to link them together. The example of the development of the concept of Riemann surfaces is used to further clarify this picture of scientific representation and to vindicate a form of patient scientific realism.

This chapter focuses on the development of epidemiology in Africa. The development of epidemiology can be viewed in three broad historical dimensions: the age of discovery, largely dominated by work on communicable diseases; wider applications of epidemiology to chronic diseases and accidents; and modern epidemiology including sophisticated applications of epidemiological tools including mathematical modelling. Cross-national studies and epidemiological research capacity in Africa are also discussed.

Until the 1970s it was widely assumed that pain was not amenable to accurate measurement. This chapter outlines the subsequent historical development of pain research, covering different theoretical approaches to understanding pain. It compares the resulting wide variety of measurement instruments.

This chapter argues that human dignity can be grounded in historical experiences of the violation and attainment of dignity, and through arguments based on practical (as opposed to theoretical) reason about how to advance respect for dignity and reduce its violation. It also presents theological warrants for human dignity based on Christian faith, and argues that reflection by practical reason on human experience interacts with these Christian religious beliefs in ways that have led the Catholic community to become an important advocate of human dignity in recent decades. Continued interaction of practical reason, human experience, and faith can enable the Catholic Church to work with other communities on behalf of human dignity in addressing new challenges today, perhaps leading the church to further historical development of its understanding of human dignity and rights in new technological and social contexts.

The contributions to this book clearly reveal that federal systems are by no means static. At the same time, however, federal dynamics vary significantly in terms of their pace, patterns and scope. Our conclusion summarizes the overall findings of the volume by outlining how different strands of theoretical reasoning and research could be linked in order to better understand and explain the dynamics of federalism. It develops an extended analytical framework that shows how varieties of federalism generate varieties of federal dynamics and vice versa. It systematically pinpoints how particular causal mechanisms emphasized in different theories can constitute modules of a more encompassing, consistent approach for the comparative exploration of federal dynamics.

During the twentieth century, the historical development of heritage resource management in South Africa followed a pattern typical of most of the former British colonies in the region. Legislation has been reactive rather than proactive, and for most of the past century the identification of significant heritage places has been higher on the agenda than conservation and management. A troubling factor has been a general lack of capacity and financial resources to implement the legislation. Between 1994 and 2000, a major change took place with the demise of apartheid, the democratic election of a non-racial government, a progressive Constitution, and the inclusion of cultural sites in environmental impact assessments. The National Heritage Resources Act (NHRA) came into force in April 2000; it was designed to incorporate heritage resources management into broader planning initiatives and to recognize and celebrate the tangible and intangible cultural values of all South Africans. This chapter focuses mainly on the ideas that underpin the NHRA and the way in which policies have been implemented.

The Introduction consists of three sections that establish the general setting and give background information that is useful to know before starting to read the other chapters. In particular, it presents an overview of a typical solution process of problems in computational sciences and engineering consisting of modelling, discretisation, and computation. Here and in many other places in the book we argue that computations should always be considered in the context of the overall solution process, which is of utmost importance when computations are performed iteratively. The second section provides a brief overview of the historical evolution of topics related to the modern field of Krylov subspace methods. This also helps in putting the historical notes later in the book into their proper context. The Introduction ends with the specification of the main notation.

This introductory chapter provides an overview of the book's main themes. Most historical studies of protest have been premised on the general view that modernity started with the state centralization and transition to capitalism in sixteenth-century Europe, and that modern historical developments outside Europe, such as those in China, were only belated replications of Europe's development. This book argues that China's modernity did not begin with its nineteenth-century clash with Western powers, but started around the sixteenth century and peaked during the eighteenth-century prosperity and stability of the Qing empire. The core of this book describes the pattern, forms, and appeals of popular protests directed at the state in the heyday of China's early modernity: the mid-Qing period, from 1740 (during the great thrust of state centralization) to 1839 (on the eve of China's clash with Western imperialism, in the Opium War of 1839–1842). By connecting the dynamics of mid-Qing protests as unearthed in this study with those of the seventeenth century and the late nineteenth and twentieth centuries as documented extensively in the literature, the book sketches the indigenous trajectory of the long-term historical transformation of protest from early modern to modern China.